<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812</id><updated>2012-02-15T00:00:16.163Z</updated><category term='Investimentos'/><category term='Crise Européia'/><category term='Causalidade de Granger'/><category term='Zona do Euro'/><category term='COPOM'/><category term='Keynes'/><category term='Fed Funds'/><category term='China'/><category term='Previdência Social'/><category term='Ponzi'/><category term='Economics'/><category term='Portugal'/><category term='Poupança'/><category term='Monetary Policy'/><category term='Livros'/><category term='Balanço de Pagamentos'/><category term='Globalização'/><category term='Interest Rate'/><category term='Modelos Econômicos'/><category term='Focus'/><category term='SELIC'/><category term='Crédito'/><category term='Seleção Adversa'/><category term='Agências de Risco'/><category term='Crises'/><category term='Euro Zone'/><category term='Política Econômica'/><category term='Boletim Focus'/><category term='WSJ'/><category term='Debt'/><category term='Funny'/><category term='Economia'/><category term='Forecasts'/><category term='International'/><category term='Relatório de Inflação'/><category term='Crítica'/><category term='Testes Estatísticos'/><category term='Presidente do Banco Central'/><category term='Microcrédito'/><category term='Sinalização'/><category term='Racionalidade'/><category term='Educational'/><category term='Macroeconomics'/><category term='Impactos na Economia'/><category term='Spreads'/><category term='Bolsa de Valores'/><category term='Capitalism'/><category term='Pensamento Econômico'/><category term='Bibliografia; Mercado Financeiro'/><category term='Política'/><category term='Federal Reserve'/><category term='Crédito Imobiliário'/><category term='Entrevista'/><category term='Microeconomia'/><category term='Taxa de Câmbio'/><category term='Mercado de Trabalho'/><category term='Nobel Prize'/><category term='Perspectivas'/><category term='PIB'/><category term='Crise'/><category term='Grécia'/><category term='Finanças Internacionais'/><category term='Política Monetária'/><category term='Labor Market'/><category term='EUA'/><category term='Blog'/><category term='Paul Krugman'/><category term='Fiscal Policy'/><category term='Política Fiscal'/><category term='Pacote de Estímulo'/><category term='International Trade'/><category term='Mercado Imobiliário'/><category term='Desemprego'/><category term='Finanças'/><category term='Análise Empírica'/><category term='Armadilha da Liquidez'/><category term='Ministério da Fazenda'/><category term='Crescimento'/><category term='Economic Policy'/><category term='Academic'/><category term='Brasil'/><category term='Finanças Comportamentais'/><category term='Mercado Financeiro'/><category term='Expectativas Racionais'/><category term='Prejuízo'/><category term='Students'/><category term='Expectations'/><category term='Hayek'/><category term='Think Tanks'/><category term='Expectativas de Mercado'/><category term='WTO'/><category term='Mercado de Ações'/><category term='Taxa de Investimento'/><category term='Bancos'/><category term='Inflação'/><category term='Teoria dos Jogos'/><category term='Números'/><category term='Risco Moral'/><category term='Non-Tradables'/><category term='Canadá'/><category term='Crisis'/><category term='Top 5'/><category term='Financiamento de Veículos'/><category term='Contágio'/><category term='Dívida'/><category term='Petróleo'/><category term='Demográfica'/><category term='Défict Orçamentário'/><category term='Corrida aos Bancos'/><category term='Capital Estrangeiro'/><category term='Bolha de Ativos'/><category term='Eleições'/><category term='Real Exchange Rates'/><category term='Academia'/><category term='Fluxo de Capitais'/><category term='Bolha'/><category term='Taxa de juros'/><category term='Macroeconomia'/><category term='Lehman Brother'/><category term='Banco Central'/><category term='Inflation'/><category term='Investimento Estrangeiro Direto'/><category term='Comércio Exterior'/><category term='Tradables'/><category term='História'/><category term='Brazil'/><category term='Ibovespa'/><category term='Recuperação Mundial'/><category term='ATA'/><category term='Depósitos Compulsórios'/><category term='Pesquisa Eleitoral'/><title type='text'>Economic Approach</title><subtitle type='html'>A blog about economics focused on (international) macroeconomic events and policies, business cycles analysis and some guesses about what's going on in the world. Feel free to join the discussion and contribute with your own guesses.</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default?max-results=100'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default?start-index=101&amp;max-results=100'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>146</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>100</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-8944339038053980469</id><published>2012-02-15T00:00:00.001Z</published><updated>2012-02-15T00:00:16.172Z</updated><title type='text'>Valentine's day</title><content type='html'>An Economic Approach to Valentine's day!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.fosslien.com/heart/" target="_blank"&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-8944339038053980469?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/8944339038053980469/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/02/valentines-day.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8944339038053980469'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8944339038053980469'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/02/valentines-day.html' title='Valentine&apos;s day'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5510672505231414697</id><published>2012-02-04T01:49:00.000Z</published><updated>2012-02-04T01:49:10.939Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Still leveraged</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;The story is well known. The greatest crisis after the Great Depression, weak recover in the developed world, some countries stuck in the liquidity trap and the highly indebted private sector deleveraging without fiscal stimulus (or even worse, with fiscal austerity implemented) deepening the economic and political issues, right? Wrong. The situation is even worse.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;While in the US the households’ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/21/the-ongoing-debt-transformation/" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;deleveraging process&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; seems to be occurring relatively fast (not as fast as the leveraging, but anyway), in Europe the situation is not the same. Let’s take Portugal as an example. The following graph shows how the evolution of the households’ liabilities/GDP ratio (it’s not the best way to see the leverage/deleverage situation, but it can be useful). As we can see the index increased until the second quarter of 2009, and remained high since then.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;(Click on the graph to see better)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TcsGbaAmDVA/TyyMhCUhAxI/AAAAAAAAAUg/49Am3lD_FQA/s1600/households+liabilities-gdp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="180" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TcsGbaAmDVA/TyyMhCUhAxI/AAAAAAAAAUg/49Am3lD_FQA/s320/households+liabilities-gdp.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The fiscal austerity has been implemented before the private deleveraging process begins. That means, government savings are increasing and private savings will also increase. So if everybody is increasing savings, we know &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/the-paradox-of-thrift-for-real/" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;what will happen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;. This is indeed a &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/harm-of-wrong-timing-of-austerity.html" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;wrong time&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; for fiscal austerity. And can get even &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;worse if some indicators present a not-very-friendly path&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;, calling for more contractionary actions. My worries are not about the possibility of &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/model-of-debt-crisis.html" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;multiple equilibria&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;, but about the trajectory to only one equilibrium.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The way I see it, 2012 will be like this: several meetings of leading Euro Zone policymakers; decisions for gaining some time (few or none with impact in the real roots of the problem); austerity plans implemented hurting impaired economies; rising concerns about the survival of the (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/model-of-debt-crisis.html" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;non-optimal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;) single currency area and those &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/discussing-roubinis-four-options.html" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"&gt;four possible outcomes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; Roubini was talking about being reduced to only two – the situation is managed and the countries are backed up/bailed-out, or a disorderly break-up.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The inability of managing the situation of Greece brings concerns. The required haircut may now be 75% of the debt notional. The magnitude of default doesn’t really matter to me, but closing a deal as soon as possible does. The fact that Greece will default is well known for a while now. First of all, the policymakers should have contained the situation in the very beginning – maybe excluding from the euro the country given the fact that some statistics were adulterated, or negotiating quickly the default – for avoiding contagion. Too late. They had a “second chance” when the markets priced the default and “forgot” about the Greece thing. And they’ve missed it. The situation is now on the newspapers’ headlines again.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The debt problem is a medium-run issue and should be managed in that way. The severity of the situation could be used for pressuring for (credible) commitment with reforms to be implemented as soon as the economies get back on track, and not amid a recession and uncertain environment. Austerity is the second step, not the first one.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5510672505231414697?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5510672505231414697/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/02/still-leveraged.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5510672505231414697'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5510672505231414697'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/02/still-leveraged.html' title='Still leveraged'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TcsGbaAmDVA/TyyMhCUhAxI/AAAAAAAAAUg/49Am3lD_FQA/s72-c/households+liabilities-gdp.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5829208489980651796</id><published>2012-01-28T22:21:00.001Z</published><updated>2012-01-29T02:17:01.271Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Capitalism'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='International Trade'/><title type='text'>Shaking Hands</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The peculiar high five ofthe invisible hand of the markets and the visible hand of the government has been shaping a new form of capitalism: state capitalism (SC). After reading the January21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; – 27&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; The Economist edition’s great special reporton state-capitalism (a must-read) I’ve been wondering about the sustainabilityof this model. Using some pillars of the free-market capitalism (FMC – I’ll usefreely expressions like free market and liberal for the same sort ofcapitalism, without worrying about conceptual differences that may exist), the statecapitalists countries’ companies compete with the developed nation’s rivalsunder the government’s protection (i.e. subsidies, cash infusion, creditsupply, “benevolent” legal environment, exchange rate manipulations, etc.).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Of course some attemptsmade by the state are equivocate and the fact that in SC the government pointsthe finger for those who will be succeeded (letting open here the meaning ofsuccess) may give some space for distrust. From my point of view, in order tomake that new form of capitalism live as long as it can, it is fundamental thatthe policymakers understand/assume that the “selected” companies should be suchthat i) the govern is boosting its country’s comparative advantages and let othersectors/segments free to compete and ii) it’s a business that the state has aminimum level of competence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;One example of comparativeadvantages is due to endowment differences. Take China for instance. It is alabor-intensive country with low (though rising) real wage and has anexport-oriented growth strategy. Adding an artificially undervalued (real)exchange rate improves its situation and becomes hard to compete with. On theother hand, it’s not a leading-in-innovation country, so maybe investing in acopy of the Silicon Valley wouldn't be a good strategy (using state-owned companies).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;It’s well knownthat state-owned companies are less productive and they are better ininfrastructure than consumer goods and innovation as the foresaid report pointsout. But there are other problems. Corruption is, as far as I can see, thegreatest tumor. As brilliantly mentioned in the report, the SC model arisesfrom countries with problematic states. There’s a huge room for corruption in asystem that is responsible for regulating itself and in a country where it’s institutionalarchitecture is not very solid.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The reportquotes the idea that the like the socialism, the state capitalism cannotsurvive only in one country. I will go further. It depends also on liberalcapitalism in other countries. Think about it. One great advantage of statecapitalism is the use of the capitalist toolkit backed up by the government’ssafety net when copying the freer capitalist’s ideas and implementing them withits own competition model. But without FMC, who’s going to innovate? What wouldbe the non-state-backed-up enterprises that would consolidate the statesupport as an advantage? This could worsen the whole innovation process inthe limit, given the fact that it’s not the strength of SC countries to managethe innovation. (One could argue that they could learn, well, I’ll let thisopen without worrying about this particular point).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;After a fewconsiderations regarding benefits and issues of the SC (for a reallycomprehensive text go to the report), the situation as I see it is one where thenew model will impose some difficulties to the FMC, but not in a way that onlyone should remain at last. It may be more in a sense that the reign of thedeveloped countries are now challenged in the next years by a model that sharesthe weapons, but boosts them differently (and also has other sort of weaknesses). I’m not sure that is a system for remaining after some developmentthreshold. There could be a point where this model may have to open space foranother one (a sort of a macro creative destruction), and the country mustprepare itself before reach this threshold. Some economists are already arguingthat China should change its growth model from export-oriented with governmentinvestment playing a huge role, to a more domestic consumption-focused approach.If this is true, what would be the implications on SC? I personally don’t know.(One may remember that Brazil is a relative closed economy and has its own SCmodel; well, it’s a different SC than the one adopted in China as far as I cansee).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;P.S.: I want tomake a remark about the role of the state and what I have been defending aboutother topics such as the crisis’ response. I’m very inclined to the Keynesianapproach and&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 24px;"&gt;I've&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;been using its tools (specially the static IS-LM and AS-ADframework) for illustrating as simple as I can what I think. This has nothingabout my concerns about the SC. Briefly, (New?)Keynesian economics is, in myopinion, a) recognizing not only the importance of the monetary policy inaffecting business cycles, but also that the fiscal policy can impact theoutput in the short-run, and sometimes is all the policymakers really got (e.g.within a liquidity trap); b) that imperfections, asymmetries, rigidities andother deviations from perfect competition are real things and sometimes publicpolicy (taxation, regulation, and so on) is necessary for minimizingdistortions (even though they may also be the cause); c) the importance notonly of the expectations, but the animal spirits in the people’s behavior aswell, i.e. being aware that some schizophrenic outcomes may happen and multipleequilibria may be a real issue. (Yes, there are several more points about Keynesianeconomics; I just want to highlight the difference of fiscal stimulus and stateparticipation in other layers of the economy).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5829208489980651796?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5829208489980651796/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/shaking-hands.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5829208489980651796'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5829208489980651796'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/shaking-hands.html' title='Shaking Hands'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2428929024285901044</id><published>2012-01-25T22:05:00.000Z</published><updated>2012-01-27T10:45:47.523Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Expectations'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Monetary Policy'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><title type='text'>Tough times require bold actions 2: the Fed’s attempt</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The FOMC decidednot only keeping the policy rate low until 2014, but also has changed its wayof doing monetary policy trying to act via expectations, reducing uncertaintyand creating a more translucent relationship with the market. As I’ve pointedout in the last post (&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/federal-reserves-projections.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;),today the FOMC released forecasts for real GDP growth, inflation andunemployment. It’s also the first time the monetary authority commits itselfwith an explicit inflation target.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;These are toughtimes and require bold actions (see &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/though-times-require-bold-actions.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;my post about it). This may be one. Inasmuch as the entity discloses theseforecasts, it is trying to anchor expectations about recovery and pricedynamics, providing short-run estimates and long-run references.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Anchored expectationsis important regardless what kind of environment you are dealing with. The UShouseholds are amid a deleverage process, lacking aggregate demand and stuckwithin a liquidity trap. If expectations are out of control, it would be one more(big) problem to handle and since a few options are available.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The zero-lowbound of nominal interest rate is binding, so monetary attempts cannot be theconventional ones; however the toolkit is getting scarce. Fiscal policy has itsown issues. First of all, there’s a lag between the conception andimplementation. Second, the debt level amid a not-very-favorable politicalprocess makes a stimulus plan hard to be implemented.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Therefore, theinitiative of the Federal Reserve in communicating with the market in a waythat would induce a convergence of expectations may be in the right direction.I’m only not sure if it will do much effect. Publicizing the 2% target it’sjust ratifying something that people already expect. On the other hand, what can indeed beinteresting are the estimates regarding short-run economic growth andunemployment, since these are drivers for several economic decisions.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2428929024285901044?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2428929024285901044/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/tough-times-and-require-bold-actions-2.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2428929024285901044'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2428929024285901044'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/tough-times-and-require-bold-actions-2.html' title='Tough times require bold actions 2: the Fed’s attempt'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-415183428460588498</id><published>2012-01-25T20:41:00.001Z</published><updated>2012-01-25T20:42:02.813Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Monetary Policy'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Federal Reserve'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Forecasts'/><title type='text'>Federal Reserve's projections</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Seeking to decrease uncertainty and make monetary policy conduction more clear, the Federal Reserve released its forecasts for real GDP growth, inflation and unemployment (&lt;a href="http://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/files/fomcprojtabl20120125.pdf" target="_blank"&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;(click on the table to see better)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2Dn1HUXtEdQ/TyBo3o1HmFI/AAAAAAAAAUY/6zBnMsZEkiA/s1600/fed+projections+25+jan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="179" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2Dn1HUXtEdQ/TyBo3o1HmFI/AAAAAAAAAUY/6zBnMsZEkiA/s320/fed+projections+25+jan.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;More on this subject later.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-415183428460588498?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/415183428460588498/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/federal-reserves-projections.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/415183428460588498'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/415183428460588498'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/federal-reserves-projections.html' title='Federal Reserve&apos;s projections'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2Dn1HUXtEdQ/TyBo3o1HmFI/AAAAAAAAAUY/6zBnMsZEkiA/s72-c/fed+projections+25+jan.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-647843240719420799</id><published>2012-01-23T22:09:00.001Z</published><updated>2012-01-23T22:09:30.999Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Think Tanks'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='International'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Academic'/><title type='text'>Top Think Tanks</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Congratulations to &lt;a href="http://portal.fgv.br/en" target="_blank"&gt;Fundação Getúlio Vargas&lt;/a&gt; (I received my Master's degree in Economics at &lt;a href="http://www.eesp.fgv.br/en" target="_blank"&gt;São Paulo School of Economics&lt;/a&gt; of Fundação Getúlio Vargas) for being among the International Top 30 Think Tanks (full publication &lt;a href="http://gotothinktank.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/2011_Global_Go_To_Think_Tanks_Report_-_January_20_Edition_WITH_LETTEr-1.pdf" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Click on the table to see better:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eR23Qh80IzA/Tx3aaNxSoPI/AAAAAAAAAUQ/8Q2bzsdw9GA/s1600/top+30+think+tanks.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eR23Qh80IzA/Tx3aaNxSoPI/AAAAAAAAAUQ/8Q2bzsdw9GA/s320/top+30+think+tanks.jpg" width="296" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-647843240719420799?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/647843240719420799/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/top-think-tanks.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/647843240719420799'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/647843240719420799'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/top-think-tanks.html' title='Top Think Tanks'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eR23Qh80IzA/Tx3aaNxSoPI/AAAAAAAAAUQ/8Q2bzsdw9GA/s72-c/top+30+think+tanks.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1042005478502916529</id><published>2012-01-23T13:40:00.001Z</published><updated>2012-01-23T13:40:04.587Z</updated><title type='text'>Recommended reading</title><content type='html'>A few interesting texts:&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/shiller81/English" target="_blank"&gt;Does Austerity Promote Economic Growth? (Robert Shiller)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/frankel11/English" target="_blank"&gt;Will Emerging Markets Fall in 2012? (Jeffrey Frankel)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.cristianomcosta.com/2012/01/leilao-de-aeroportos.html" target="_blank"&gt;Leilão de Aeroportos (Cristiano M. Costa)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;- &lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/21/the-ongoing-debt-transformation/?gwh=9CB4F8E0C5DA83130E4B1DE1AC70E0DF" target="_blank"&gt;The Ongoing Debt Transformation (Paul Krugman)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/7519" target="_blank"&gt;The uncoupling of decoupling: Latin America's experience (Luciano Cohan and Eduardo Levy Yeyati)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1042005478502916529?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1042005478502916529/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/recommended-reading.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1042005478502916529'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1042005478502916529'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/recommended-reading.html' title='Recommended reading'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-508399994884145943</id><published>2012-01-14T19:07:00.004Z</published><updated>2012-01-14T19:11:25.088Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Debt'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>A model of a debt crisis</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/14/sp-on-europe/"&gt;Prof. Paul Krugman gets the essence&lt;/a&gt;, as usual. Olivier &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/four-lessons-by-olivier-blanchard.html"&gt;Blanchard has already warned about financial markets schizophrenic&lt;/a&gt; behavior regarding austerity plans and the possibility of multiple equilibria. I’ll try to elaborate it with a simple model of debt crisis.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) The model&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The model is presented in David Romer’s &lt;/span&gt;&lt;i style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Advanced Macroeconomics&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; book. All derivations I took from there, any mistakes are my own.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- Quantity of debt: D;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- Debt interest rate factor is R;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- The government will obtain revenue from next period taxes, T (think as net taxes, after expenditures and transfers), that follows a random continuous distribution;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- If T &amp;gt; DR, than the government pays its debt. Default occurs otherwise;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- Investors are risk neutral;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- The risk free rate is given by Rf;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- The default probability is “p”;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;- In equilibrium, the expected return on governments debt should be equal to the risk free:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;(1 – p)R = Rf&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;Rearranging it yields:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;p = (R-RF)/R&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Plotting the probability of default as a function of the debt interests gives us:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;(click on the graphs to see better)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_7lYoNvNw9o/TxHSD4IRXsI/AAAAAAAAATw/rDZ55GwGUDM/s1600/probability.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="176" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_7lYoNvNw9o/TxHSD4IRXsI/AAAAAAAAATw/rDZ55GwGUDM/s320/probability.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;When Rf = R the probability of default is zero. If the taxes vary randomly in the interval [Tmin, Tmax], the probability of default is given by:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m8jZJ3GG-pA/TxHSJJxxmRI/AAAAAAAAAT4/vFkGmXV8xfM/s1600/probability2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="188" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m8jZJ3GG-pA/TxHSJJxxmRI/AAAAAAAAAT4/vFkGmXV8xfM/s320/probability2.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Where if R&amp;lt; Tmin/D, the amount of taxes is sufficient for covering all the debt and its interests, so the government pays. If R &amp;gt; Tmax/D, the government certainly defaults.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Combining the two graphs yields:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i-DnsayXOW4/TxHSPNkXfCI/AAAAAAAAAUA/zoSzXODNhVk/s1600/combining.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="197" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i-DnsayXOW4/TxHSPNkXfCI/AAAAAAAAAUA/zoSzXODNhVk/s320/combining.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;There are three equilibria. The point A where R = Rf is a stable equilibrium with no default. The point B is an unstable equilibrium with a high probability of default and a high interest rate paid by the government. The third equilibrium is the default.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;An increase in the risk free rate would produce the following result:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1JyfZ9iWjZ0/TxHSVvsbtAI/AAAAAAAAAUI/kp58IoAFIzE/s1600/combining2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="185" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1JyfZ9iWjZ0/TxHSVvsbtAI/AAAAAAAAAUI/kp58IoAFIzE/s320/combining2.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Note that in this situation, the unstable equilibrium rate (B²) is lower than the previous situation (B), meaning that a self-fulfilling debt-default can occur with lower rates.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) Policies&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;To handle with this debt crisis, policymakers within the Euro Zone have implemented &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/harm-of-wrong-timing-of-austerity.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;wrong timing&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; fiscal attempts, such as a &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;stability union&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;, in order to contain the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-regimes.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;high indebted&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; trouble countries situation, when &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-unsustainability.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;debt sustainability is questioned&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; and they have been &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;suffering the consequences of the monetary arrangement&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;They have diffused the expansionary fiscal austerity doctrine that lies in a sort of Ricardian equivalence where austerity would induce households to consume and firms to invest since the today’s saving by the government could have led to lower taxes in the future, augmenting lifetime income. It’s not working. Maybe the share of Ricardian families in the reality is not enough to produce this outcome, and the majority faces liquidity constraints and relates its consumption path with current income. Moreover, the fact of being unemployed may be a problem.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;I’m not a (very) fan of rating agencies, but the S&amp;amp;P downgrade was done based on the harm of austerity programs in the debt repayment capability. It’s &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/09/is-lmentary/" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;easy to see why&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;. Less government purchases, lower aggregate demand, lower income, lower taxes, etc…&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) Worries&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The model presented is a textbook model. That means that policymakers know about it. Self-fulfilling equilibrium due to the dynamic of expectations is a real threat and may impose additional pain in those countries that have not only to recover from the problems of the 2008 crisis and the nowadays crisis, but to accommodate its economies to the single currency area as well. The commitment with the euro is yet strong, but the survival of the currency that was prematurely implemented is threatened not by the markets, but by how this crisis has been conducted. It’s a political crisis with severe economical impacts. It’s also a dispute of schools of taught, but when this remains on the academic field, just a few individuals are hurt. When this transposes to reality, the collateral damage is huge. Instead of learn with the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/1937-in-2011/" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;mistakes of past&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; we are repeating it and hopping for different results.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-508399994884145943?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/508399994884145943/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/model-of-debt-crisis.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/508399994884145943'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/508399994884145943'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/model-of-debt-crisis.html' title='A model of a debt crisis'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_7lYoNvNw9o/TxHSD4IRXsI/AAAAAAAAATw/rDZ55GwGUDM/s72-c/probability.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5388216767946071967</id><published>2012-01-08T14:56:00.008Z</published><updated>2012-01-12T10:31:20.588Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflation'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Labor Market'/><title type='text'>Labor market and nominal rigidity: the role of the inflation differential</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The situation within the Euro Zone is extremely delicate (see some context &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/international-economic-environment.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) and not only the natural adjustment to the monetary arrangement may impose some difficulties (see &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), but also the proposed policies may add additional pain (see &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/harm-of-wrong-timing-of-austerity.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/four-lessons-by-olivier-blanchard.html"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;The focus of this post is the dynamic of the labor market and the importance of correctly managed inflation differentials to help the recovery.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;I've&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;compared Germany and Portugal and used some numbers to demonstrate what some economists having been arguing. I must stress that the values are only references and were calculated with some assumptions in order to facilitate the calculations. Real life is more complex but this analysis may indicate a good path.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) Some data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The unemployment rate of Portugal has demonstrated a positive trend since 2001. The unit labor cost ratio (Portuguese unit labor cost index divided by German unit labor cost index) has also an increase trend. From my point of view, this indicates a correction done via quantities since nominal wages are (very?) stick in Portugal and inflation is not well behaved. The following graphs show the seasonally adjusted monthly unemployment rate in Portugal, the unit labor cost ratio and the annual variation of the consumer price indexes of Portugal and Germany (HICP – excluding energy):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;(click on the graphs, tables and demonstrations to see better)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BzLaPR2eG8E/TwmiSxsI1SI/AAAAAAAAATI/-djkmi-bsV8/s1600/unemployment+Portugal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="175" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BzLaPR2eG8E/TwmiSxsI1SI/AAAAAAAAATI/-djkmi-bsV8/s320/unemployment+Portugal.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G6mOTQfNzRw/TwmirlmdYVI/AAAAAAAAATQ/KfXJtHaZd7o/s1600/unit+labor+costs+ratio.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="175" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-G6mOTQfNzRw/TwmirlmdYVI/AAAAAAAAATQ/KfXJtHaZd7o/s320/unit+labor+costs+ratio.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JhVZJwsNxZs/Twmi-z24SwI/AAAAAAAAATY/0zKjORyanxo/s1600/hicp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="175" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JhVZJwsNxZs/Twmi-z24SwI/AAAAAAAAATY/0zKjORyanxo/s320/hicp.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) Math&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5PCd3ZA-E5o/TwmfZxIKhwI/AAAAAAAAASg/YO3HN4I1cP8/s1600/first+part.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="204" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5PCd3ZA-E5o/TwmfZxIKhwI/AAAAAAAAASg/YO3HN4I1cP8/s320/first+part.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;From equation (3) we know that the marginal productivity ratio is equal to the inflation ratio times the wage ratio (the superscripts stand for the country and the subscripts for the time). The following table tries to see this relation. In the first column the inflation ratio and the marginal productivity ratio are given by the historical average between 2001 and 2006 and the wage ratio was calculated. The same logic for the other two columns, just changing the “calculated variable”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Vb7MY6yUGyY/TwmhwWftrsI/AAAAAAAAATA/f31N9lQW65k/s1600/table.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="79" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Vb7MY6yUGyY/TwmhwWftrsI/AAAAAAAAATA/f31N9lQW65k/s320/table.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Since we are talking about averages and the real world has several imperfections, I think the results are pretty good (i.e. the calculated values are not too far from the observed ones).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kYv2S-3fE2c/TwmsfJQ3xoI/AAAAAAAAATg/pBMQZv8ZMN8/s1600/second+part.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="163" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kYv2S-3fE2c/TwmsfJQ3xoI/AAAAAAAAATg/pBMQZv8ZMN8/s320/second+part.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5O6wW0GZou4/TwmsiklbdII/AAAAAAAAATo/G3yHBn2FBGM/s1600/third+part.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="173" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5O6wW0GZou4/TwmsiklbdII/AAAAAAAAATo/G3yHBn2FBGM/s320/third+part.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) Conclusion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;I used the marginal productivity ratio for determining a “healthy equilibrium” in which the Euro Zone internal dynamic would be more favorable to the peripheral countries represented by Portugal. In a nutshell the German inflation should be higher (in our particular example is just a steady state rate, in order to get there fast the differential should be even greater) than the trouble countries in order to create a faster adjustment with less pain given that the wages have been demonstrating nominal (and in some particular years even real) rigidity. But Germany has a huge inflation fear, what make things complicated. This equilibrium do not contemplate a fall in Portuguese wages or a lower growth than in Germany in order to adjust. This may happen since with rising unemployment in the&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 24px;"&gt;medium&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;-run wages also may adjust and the inflation differential may be lower. But&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 24px;"&gt;until&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;then...&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The whole situation by itself would imply in costs emerging from the labor market (e.g. rise in unemployment), but with the 2008 crisis and the debt crisis now, the correction will occur in a worse scenario, with financial market pressure (and schizophrenic behavior) and contestable policy decisions, resulting in huge losses for households.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5388216767946071967?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5388216767946071967/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/labor-market-and-nominal-rigidity-role.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5388216767946071967'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5388216767946071967'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/labor-market-and-nominal-rigidity-role.html' title='Labor market and nominal rigidity: the role of the inflation differential'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BzLaPR2eG8E/TwmiSxsI1SI/AAAAAAAAATI/-djkmi-bsV8/s72-c/unemployment+Portugal.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-8152409259918084147</id><published>2012-01-04T17:58:00.002Z</published><updated>2012-01-05T09:35:07.349Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economic Policy'/><title type='text'>The harm of wrong timing in austerity programs</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: left;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;European countries have been dealing with a high debt level for a while now (see my post about debt regimes &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-regimes.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;), and its sustainability has been questioned (see my remarks about it &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-unsustainability.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;). For managing this debt crisis European policymakers have agreed about a Fiscal Stability Union plan, with serious procyclical implications (see my post about it &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;The recession in Europe in the following periods is more likely than ever, especially with the policymaker’s decisions regarding government expenditures. Private spending (consumption and investment) has no incentive to grow, given an extremely uncertain horizon. I presented a briefly discussion about the international environment&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/international-economic-environment.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In this post, I took an opposite way, more or less. Let’s analyze the impacts of the timing of austerity programs via a simple household utility static exercise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) Static Analysis&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;The social welfare will be evaluated&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;based on a representative agent utility function and, just for simplicity, I’ll assume that depends only of consumption level. Usually people are assumed to be risk averse, so we need a concave utility function (for diminishing marginal utilities, i.e. as the level of utility increases the utility gained with the additional consumption unity is less than the utility gained with the last consumption unity). I used a very simple functional form as the following graph will show:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_bQlek0Yhng/TwSPO4PD_oI/AAAAAAAAASY/8FkwVDHJC4o/s1600/utility+function.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="178" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_bQlek0Yhng/TwSPO4PD_oI/AAAAAAAAASY/8FkwVDHJC4o/s320/utility+function.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Assume the consumption level during a recession before the austerity being implemented is 50 and after is 40. It represents a loss of 27.1% in the household’s utility level. Now consider that the consumption level during an expansion is 70 and after is 55 (the cut is higher since the debt level grew until the implementation of the austerity plan). It represents a loss of 25.6%, less than the previous situation.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) Remarks&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;- The utility function utilized is very simple, but this does not compromise the analysis. One can think about other features of the utility function such as leisure, money, government spending and so on and may infer that they would not hurt the logic (leisure may not behave well, but I’m not sure that containing your own labor supply in a expansion has the same impact that containing it amid a recession);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;- One argumentation is that households maximize intertemporal utility function and increases in future consumption due to austerity today may compensate the loss in consumption today. Well, it depends on several things, discount rates, interest rates, expectations and so on. I still do not see why the future consumption level would increase since a consistent fall in GDP due to a too long recession could induce in lower levels of the natural and even the Walrasian GDP, what would imply in lower future consumption.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) Conclusions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Debt is a problem in several countries, but a wrong policy may also be a problem. Austerity is needed but not right now. The social welfare impact of correcting government indebtedness amid a recession is greater than doing the same procedure but during an expansion. This is just an exercise to express the logic in a sort of microeconomic framework, but seems consistent with a "macro approach" that fiscal austerity is contractionary in the end. And yes &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/30/opinion/keynes-was-right.html?_r=1&amp;amp;partner=rssnyt&amp;amp;emc=rss" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Prof. Paul Krugman, Keynes was right indeed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-8152409259918084147?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/8152409259918084147/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/harm-of-wrong-timing-of-austerity.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8152409259918084147'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8152409259918084147'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/harm-of-wrong-timing-of-austerity.html' title='The harm of wrong timing in austerity programs'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_bQlek0Yhng/TwSPO4PD_oI/AAAAAAAAASY/8FkwVDHJC4o/s72-c/utility+function.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6251928531292982682</id><published>2012-01-02T20:03:00.003Z</published><updated>2012-01-03T19:53:30.502Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>The international economic environment</title><content type='html'>&lt;table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/image/iZ8x018n5Xn0.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://www.bloomberg.com/image/iZ8x018n5Xn0.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"&gt;picture from Bloomberg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The first post of 2012 is for organizing thoughts about the US and Euro countries and maybe infer what we can expect for this year.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) The situation as I see it&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;After several years of prominent growth in an extremely liquid and low regulated framework (fatal combination) the world experienced the Great Recession, a huge impact on several economies after the burst in the US housing bubble transmitted trough complex structures and derivatives that were designed to protect investors. Some emerging markets (e.g. Brazil) that once were more vulnerable to problems in developed nations showed not only resilience, but also economic response capability to contain the fall in GDP. They have launched an “unorthodox supplement of the inflation target setting” (see Velasco&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/velasco13/English" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;on the subject).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In the industrialized world the situation is different. Unemployment rates have increased and remain in a noxious high level, with a possible NAIRU harmful hysteresis if the circumstances are not reversed soon (consulting important authors like Reinhart and Rogoff we know that &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w16334.pdf" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;after the fall&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; developed countries may take ten years to register unemployment rates compatible with pre-crisis levels). A lack of aggregate demand and the low level of the interest rates stuck the US in the so-called liquidity trap.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In the one-currency-several-too-different-countries the business cycles disparities between the core and the periphery have been highlighted in the sovereign debt market. From a financial crash to a debt crisis (see &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.princeton.edu/economics/seminar-schedule-by-prog/macro-s10/papers/Reinhardt.pdf" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Reinhart and Rogoff&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;), the countries under the monetary arrangement are facing a huge problems to respond to the crisis without monetary tools, with its debt levels questioned and the fiscal policy efficacy in discussion. The euro survival is threatened.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) Policy discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;What can be done? Well, the answer will depend on who’s answering. There has been a hot discussion among the economists about the next policy steps. The Keynesian view would prescribe that fiscal stimulus should be implemented in order to boost the aggregate demand, increase income, consumption, investment, employment, etc and put the economy back on track. This has been questioned by those who support their disbelieves in the Ricardian Equivalence, in which temporary increases in government purchases would not stimulate the aggregate demand since the households would know that it would be financed in the future by higher taxes, so they would save more now. In this situation they recommend the exactly opposite: by implementing fiscal austerity the households and the firms would be more confident about the economic situation in the future and would start to consume and invest now and prepare themslves for the higher taxes in the future. I stand with the Keynesian view.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In the old continent after the countries facing problems to recover and paying the price of the euro (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;), the single currency without a single budget issue is not latent anymore, and the euro leaders agreed with a fiscal arrangement that assures the Maastricht treat (or at least penalizes those countries that do not accomplish it). After some math and analyzing the situation with a simple, but powerful model, I’m worried about it (see &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; what I mean).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) What’s next?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Some conjectures about the possible outcomes of the euro crisis postulated by Roubini were discussed in this blog before (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/discussing-roubinis-four-options.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;). The probability of a disruptive event (i.e. disordered breakup) is increasing since the policymakers do not take definitive measures and even the investors doubt benefit has been taken away (an issue that Olivier Blanchard has pointed out; link &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/four-lessons-by-olivier-blanchard.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;If the situation remains the same, i.e. the policymakers announcing palliative measures and neither fixing the structural problems (or at least creating a credible and feasible plan for them) nor coordinating a new arrangement, the breakup may be postponed, but one day the pressure might be too high (2013?). In some countries (e.g. Portugal) the accommodation to the euro due to productivity differentials that reflects on the real exchange rate may result in an adjustment in labor market not in the prices (since nominal wages are stick and the low inflation makes the velocity of equalization of productivity adjusted real wages), but rather in the quantities (NAIRU’s hysteresis), as I’ve briefly discussed &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/real-exchange-rates-and-eurozone-issues.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In the US the economy has been shown a better shape, but far from a great picture. The political debate is influencing the economic policy on the fiscal side and until the households’ deleveraging process ends, given that there’s a little space for an effective monetary attempt, the GDP may remain far from the potential and the labor market could take those ten years to achieve good levels.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;If the scenario it’s not cheering, we can add some boom-burst housing bubble in China (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/19/opinion/krugman-will-china-break.html?_r=1" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;) and then things will became interesting. Welcome (volatile) 2012!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6251928531292982682?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6251928531292982682/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/international-economic-environment.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6251928531292982682'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6251928531292982682'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2012/01/international-economic-environment.html' title='The international economic environment'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-9019169282878455310</id><published>2011-12-24T11:33:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-12-24T11:33:56.013Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Academic'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Funny'/><title type='text'>Ho Ho Ho</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.phdcomics.com/comics/archive/phd121911s.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="171" src="http://www.phdcomics.com/comics/archive/phd121911s.gif" width="400" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-9019169282878455310?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/9019169282878455310/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/ho-ho-ho.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9019169282878455310'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9019169282878455310'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/ho-ho-ho.html' title='Ho Ho Ho'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5231143687146737054</id><published>2011-12-22T12:44:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-12-22T12:44:00.635Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economic Policy'/><title type='text'>Four lessons by Olivier Blanchard</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://blog-imfdirect.imf.org/2011/12/21/2011-in-review-four-hard-truths/" target="_blank"&gt;A must read&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5231143687146737054?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5231143687146737054/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/four-lessons-by-olivier-blanchard.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5231143687146737054'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5231143687146737054'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/four-lessons-by-olivier-blanchard.html' title='Four lessons by Olivier Blanchard'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-647279970774039098</id><published>2011-12-19T20:21:00.005Z</published><updated>2011-12-19T20:30:50.992Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Debt'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Debt (un)sustainability</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;European debt has been a hot topic for a while now. Even though I think this is rather a how-to-keep-a-non-optimal-currency-area-issue (for some background, see &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-regimes.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) rather than a debt crisis, it’s important understand why the markets are so nervous. In my last post I explored the high debt regimes established in some trouble countries since the 80s. The question in this post is: are they sustainable?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;I don’t know.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;But we can do a few calculations to get some ideas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Considering Italy, Portugal and Spain, using IMF data estimates I calculated the required government primary surplus to maintain debt stable for four scenarios (interest rates at 4%, 5%, 6% and 7%). Any level above will decrease the debt, and any level below will increase the debt. Let’s see the graphs:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;(click on the graphs to see better)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-wrXpWySP8Ag/Tu-b65UVDFI/AAAAAAAAAR8/7YF1ByU2ib8/s1600/italy+req+gov+surplus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="157" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-wrXpWySP8Ag/Tu-b65UVDFI/AAAAAAAAAR8/7YF1ByU2ib8/s320/italy+req+gov+surplus.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PBsnYl5hegY/Tu-b9SIlnQI/AAAAAAAAASE/w9xYCUDKIDY/s1600/portugal+req+gov+surplus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="157" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PBsnYl5hegY/Tu-b9SIlnQI/AAAAAAAAASE/w9xYCUDKIDY/s320/portugal+req+gov+surplus.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-t_E96BPirpU/Tu-b_cOsjDI/AAAAAAAAASM/8P5UXuM4ekk/s1600/spain+req+gov+surplus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="157" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-t_E96BPirpU/Tu-b_cOsjDI/AAAAAAAAASM/8P5UXuM4ekk/s320/spain+req+gov+surplus.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;We have three different stories here. Italy does not seem to have a problem to get back on track and finance its debt. For Portugal if the environment is not very friendly, things can get pretty messy. For Spain, well, the problem just deepens.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;I will ratify my opinion that what these countries need right now is fiscal stimulus. Why? Well, first of all, they have already given up monetary policy for committing with the monetary union. And the ECB interest rate is low, new cuts will produce only marginal effects and they take too long to be implemented.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Second, for some countries like Italy, the situation is not as bad as it seems, so the government can help the economy recover. For the countries that are more in trouble, well, if you cut government expenditures and increase primary surplus, may still be not enough to stabilized the debt, so all the hurt in the economic activity may not worth. Notwithstanding, if instead of cutting expenditures the government increases it with a medium-run debt restructuring program planned, it will be easier to manage the debt after the economy is growing again.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Some remarks:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;- This is just an exercise based on estimates. As the horizon of the forecasting increases, the accuracy decreases. But decisions must be based on the available data, and corrected after new data is available.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;- I used &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://graphics.thomsonreuters.com/11/07/BV_ITDBT0711_VF.html" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" target="_blank"&gt;this logic&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt; to calculate the required primary surplus.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-647279970774039098?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/647279970774039098/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-unsustainability.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/647279970774039098'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/647279970774039098'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-unsustainability.html' title='Debt (un)sustainability'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-wrXpWySP8Ag/Tu-b65UVDFI/AAAAAAAAAR8/7YF1ByU2ib8/s72-c/italy+req+gov+surplus.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2479446685517346140</id><published>2011-12-14T17:51:00.002Z</published><updated>2011-12-29T20:01:11.176Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Debt'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Debt regimes</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Several economic models consider the “household’s problem” as an intertemporal decision between consumption and saving influenced by interest rates, preferences and risk averseness. Using the mathematical apparatus based on rational agents, we solve these models optimizing the consumption path subject to a budget constraint. Well, if you have read any of my posts before you know that I’m not very fan of this “rational agents” approach, but the whole idea of choosing a consumption path given some budget constraint is interesting.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Roughly speaking, the budget constraint tells us that in the limit, the maximum consumption level must be less or equal than our wealth. It seems just a long-run restriction. But sometimes it’s binding. And I think it’s binding right now for some European trouble countries. In other words, they are now paying the bills of the high level of consumption. Adding the fact that they are less competitive than their core-Europe neighbors, the situation gets tough.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;I used Markov Switching Regressions (MSR) to analyze the debt regimes of Portugal, Spain and Italy using the Historical Public Debt Database of the Fiscal Affairs Department of the IMF. The following graphs show the debt/GDP ratio during several years for each country, and the estimated probability of the country being in the high debt level regime (I used only two regimes and allowed changes in the mean and the variance):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-QhefY6YlYI4/Tujh5CD4-vI/AAAAAAAAARk/p-4PfPNCDdM/s1600/Portugal+debt+MSR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="161" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-QhefY6YlYI4/Tujh5CD4-vI/AAAAAAAAARk/p-4PfPNCDdM/s320/Portugal+debt+MSR.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zX41fl0A0zw/Tujh8yQcUKI/AAAAAAAAARs/AErj8rTDPYk/s1600/Spain+debt+MSR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="161" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zX41fl0A0zw/Tujh8yQcUKI/AAAAAAAAARs/AErj8rTDPYk/s320/Spain+debt+MSR.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JK5HBR9dXyo/TujiB2cOpxI/AAAAAAAAAR0/b971kJRWRq8/s1600/Italy+debt+MSR.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="161" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JK5HBR9dXyo/TujiB2cOpxI/AAAAAAAAAR0/b971kJRWRq8/s320/Italy+debt+MSR.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The three countries have some common features like the last time they have entered in the high debt regime was almost in the same epoch (near the year they joined the European Economic Community). I do not think this is a debt crisis. I do think that it’s something much more problematic than this. I’ve been writing about the currency union for a while (recent posts: &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/real-exchange-rates-and-eurozone-issues.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/discussing-roubinis-four-options.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;; if you know Portuguese also &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/muito-mais-do-que-uma-crise-de-divida.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/da-para-aguentar-ate-o-medio-prazo.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/crise-mundial-austeridade-so-vai-piorar.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) and I do think that the problems that were triggered by the 2008 financial crisis are challenging the euro existence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;If you look at the graphs and the estimated probabilities you may wonder why now? I mean, they have been in this high level regime for a while, and why now they have a crisis?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;I have a guess. From my point of view, the Euro Zone (and maybe also just the precedent European Economic Community) created a pooling (unstable) equilibrium in which countries were priced in an optimistic way. In this scenario, the “bindness” of the budget constraint was postponed due to cheap capital inflows from the core to the periphery (and from other parts of the world also). “Everybody was Germany”. &amp;nbsp;So even in the high debt level regime, they were considered safer than they really were, so they could afford to consume more than it could (or should). But maybe the 2008 shock was too strong to postpone even more.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;If I’m saying that the budget constraint is now binding, why I state that this is not a debt crisis?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Well, from my point of view the real problem today it’s not the debt level of the countries (this is more a medium/long-run problem), but the incapacity of manage a high level of debt and expand their economy since they are stuck in a monetary arrangement in which they cannot use monetary tools to boost their output and fiscal policy is questioned for those who are concerned with debt levels. They are stuck in a liquidity trap. They are less competitive than the core countries and do not have the nominal exchange rate to adjust it. Fiscal policy is need today and a debt restructuring program is need tomorrow. But they are going in the opposite way.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2479446685517346140?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2479446685517346140/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-regimes.html#comment-form' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2479446685517346140'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2479446685517346140'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/debt-regimes.html' title='Debt regimes'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-QhefY6YlYI4/Tujh5CD4-vI/AAAAAAAAARk/p-4PfPNCDdM/s72-c/Portugal+debt+MSR.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6818746744751168992</id><published>2011-12-11T14:59:00.002Z</published><updated>2011-12-11T15:33:36.784Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Fiscal Policy'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Fiscal stability union, math and procyclical implications</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Recently the European Union leaders have announced a plan for what they’ve called as Fiscal Stability Union. With exception of the Britain, all members have joined the attempt. Let’s analyzed what has been proposed.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Roughly speaking (actually writing, but anyway), there will be some mechanisms in order to guarantee (or at least stimulate) that countries will fulfill the targets of maximum debt/GDP and govern balance/GDP.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;As Kevin O’Rourke have pointed out &lt;a href="http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/orourke1/English" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, this quite different from the sort of fiscal arrangement Europe needs right now. What has been proposed has important procyclical issues rather than countercyclical benefits of transfers’ mechanisms amid recessions. Let’s work on it with simple math and simple good models of the economy.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) Some math&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Let’s consider the debt/GDP ratio, an important measure of countries fiscal health and that is in the kernel of the recent events. During recessions, GDP falls. If everything remains constant, debt/GDP goes up. But whenever a country tries to implement fiscal stimulus, actually the debt can also goes up, so the debt/GDP ratio may increases even more. The designed plan for this situation is: fiscal austerity.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;I’ll quote Kevin O’Rourke: “one lesson that the world has learned since the financial crisis of 2008 is that a contractionary fiscal policy means what it says: contraction. Since 2010, a Europe-wide experiment has conclusively falsified the idea that fiscal contractions are expansionary. August 2011 saw the largest monthly decrease in eurozone industrial production since September 2009, German exports fell sharply in October, and&amp;nbsp;now-casting.com&amp;nbsp;is predicting declines in eurozone GDP for late 2011 and early 2012”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Now, let’s consider the govern balance/GDP. During a recession govern revenues fall but the government expenditures have some downward rigidity since there is some kinds of spending that it has (by law or just to make things working) to keep. So the revenues will fall more than the spending, and the result will be a lower govern balance (probably more negative). Only this would be a problem, but remember that GDP will fall also, so the ratio will increase more. What’s the plan for it? Fiscal austerity.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) Implications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Let’s use the old and good IS-LM framework to analyze what can emerge from this plan to trouble countries (and by trouble countries today we mean the periphery, but in the future, who knows?). Just a quick background, the IS-LM shows the aggregate demand dynamics emerging from the interaction between goods and services markets (IS) and the money market (LM). The model endogenous variables are the output level (Y) and the interest rate (r).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;- Imagine that the economy is in a given equilibrium:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-feswEH_hOio/TuTBiKqnO2I/AAAAAAAAARM/oCKMTC-6dh0/s1600/IS-LM+equilibrium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="243" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-feswEH_hOio/TuTBiKqnO2I/AAAAAAAAARM/oCKMTC-6dh0/s320/IS-LM+equilibrium.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;- Then, a demand shock put the economy in trouble:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fFk-V_0LSi4/TuTB0OxYLvI/AAAAAAAAARU/0RhTrRr0BjE/s1600/IS-LM+demand+shock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="234" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fFk-V_0LSi4/TuTB0OxYLvI/AAAAAAAAARU/0RhTrRr0BjE/s320/IS-LM+demand+shock.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;- Next, the indicators show that, based on what has been accorded, fiscal austerity must be implemented (since debt/GDP and govern balance/GDP will rise):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Nbj4ZxZ2deE/TuTDCI7kc6I/AAAAAAAAARc/tdTLSkMPCKc/s1600/IS-LM+second+demand+shock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="234" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Nbj4ZxZ2deE/TuTDCI7kc6I/AAAAAAAAARc/tdTLSkMPCKc/s320/IS-LM+second+demand+shock.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) Considerations&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;In an optimistic point of view (not mine as you can see), one can imagine that the agreement between the countries under monetary union may serve as a signal in the right direction so the markets can interpret in a good way and the pressure will fall, the debt interest rates will fall and the economies will have a little more space for maneuvers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;Personally, I just think that they have gained some time. The adjustment among periphery countries paying the price for been in the euro (&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;) is not over, and if a sequence of policies such as the ECB committing with the lender of last resort role, fiscal integration in a way that creates transfers mechanisms and some really expansionary stimulus, the situation may became even uglier.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6818746744751168992?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6818746744751168992/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6818746744751168992'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6818746744751168992'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/fiscal-stability-union-math-and.html' title='Fiscal stability union, math and procyclical implications'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-feswEH_hOio/TuTBiKqnO2I/AAAAAAAAARM/oCKMTC-6dh0/s72-c/IS-LM+equilibrium.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-271176238231566908</id><published>2011-12-08T15:41:00.003Z</published><updated>2011-12-08T15:59:19.373Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Monetary Policy'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Brazil'/><title type='text'>Monetary policy transmission and Brazilian economy</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In the last COPOM meeting (the Brazilian “version” of the FOMC) the entity has decided to cut 50 bps of the policy rate, achieving the 11% per year level. The government is worried about the impacts of the international crisis on the Brazilian growth. It has used fiscal and monetary attempts in order to sustain the expansion in the next year. Some tax cuts have been implemented, and the Brazilian Central Bank (BCB) keep cutting the SELIC and seems to continue this trend for at least more two meetings, when the rate could achieve a level of 10% per year (if the situation became uglier the intensity of the cuts might be stronger).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The inflation prognostic still worries me (see my post about it, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/this-post-is-exercise-based-on-sort-of.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). But I’ll work on the monetary policy channels in this text and try to see what the BCB has in mind.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;First of all a picture that illustrates the monetary policy transmission channels:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;(click on the graphs and pictures to see better)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1h8Gd3usB4Q/TuCzm5T9VQI/AAAAAAAAAQU/KAECu8jKZL8/s1600/monetary+policy+transmission+flow.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="313" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1h8Gd3usB4Q/TuCzm5T9VQI/AAAAAAAAAQU/KAECu8jKZL8/s320/monetary+policy+transmission+flow.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;i) The Credit Channel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The first channel analyzed is the credit channel. Basically through the monetary policy the central bank tries to stimulate the financial market to concede loans lowering costs and/or making more resources available. The picture of Brazilian credit market behavior is the following:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TaVrppSKegE/TuC_RX-l4tI/AAAAAAAAAQc/0HkA_yAG3fQ/s1600/credit+to+firms.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="114" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TaVrppSKegE/TuC_RX-l4tI/AAAAAAAAAQc/0HkA_yAG3fQ/s320/credit+to+firms.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;As we can see, passed the short period of contraction during the 2008 crisis, the growth is robust and has been around the 15% 12-month growth average for 17 months.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Hl3xzHA98wg/TuDAYcfqObI/AAAAAAAAAQk/OxWPEYduiZQ/s1600/credit+to+households.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="114" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Hl3xzHA98wg/TuDAYcfqObI/AAAAAAAAAQk/OxWPEYduiZQ/s320/credit+to+households.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Credit to households also presents a robust growth. Even with the downward trend in the recent 12-month growth rate (mainly due to macroprudential measures implemented in December 2010), it’s still above 20%. I don’t see reasons to stimulate, actually I’m still worried about the velocity of the growth.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;ii) The asset price channel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The asset price dynamics influences aggregate demand through the wealth channel (a rise in asset prices will make investor richer and, hold everything else constant, will increase consumption and investment) and through the credit channel (“a la” &lt;a href="http://dss.ucsd.edu/~grondina/pdfs/Econ211_KiyotakiMoore1997.pdf" target="_blank"&gt;Kiyotaki-Moore&lt;/a&gt; dynamics, a rise in asset prices will increase the value of the collaterals augmenting credit concessions, boosting the aggregate demand). But the definition of “asset” is a little broad, one can think about land, houses, stocks and other things. Since in Brazil the data available of housing market is not very reliable (if you know Portuguese I worked with an index for housing market in São Paulo, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-imobiliario-brasileiro-analise.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;, and presented some worries about a possible bubble). For the stock exchange however, the data is good. The value of the companies listed in the Bovespa can be seemed in the graph below:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ibpQtR8vLVo/TuDIlVHydQI/AAAAAAAAAQs/S2jjKJVUDrk/s1600/market+value.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="114" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ibpQtR8vLVo/TuDIlVHydQI/AAAAAAAAAQs/S2jjKJVUDrk/s320/market+value.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;As we can see, the recent developments have impacted the growth of the value of the companies. From January 2010 to October 2011, the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;u style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;nominal&lt;/u&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt; growth was only 5,06%. Cuts in the interest rates may stimulate the stock market (I have an idea based on a paper of Blanchard why this might not happen, maybe I’ll write about it later) but also fuel the housing market that is already a possible problem.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iii) The real rate channel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The “Keynesian” channel of monetary policy tells us the relation between aggregate demand and interest rates (or money supply if the central bank chooses it as the policy instrument). The idea is that the agents (households and firms) base their decisions, among other things, on the real interest rate.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;A lower interest rate would stimulate consumption since the opportunity cost would decrease and households would have less incentive to postpone consumption (the utility gained with the increase in the future consumption would compensate less the disutility of not consuming today). At the same moment, firms would be induced to invest for the same reason, and more projects would be attractive (i.e. imagine a project that yields a 10% per year of return; it will be attractive with a rate of 8% per year, but not with a rate of 12% per year).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The following graph shows the evolution of aggregate consumption and gross fixed capital formation (aggregate investment):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-plGI-yewXSs/TuDPe96xlBI/AAAAAAAAAQ8/bgEOvd4VUYg/s1600/consumption+and+investment.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="114" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-plGI-yewXSs/TuDPe96xlBI/AAAAAAAAAQ8/bgEOvd4VUYg/s320/consumption+and+investment.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;These private components of the aggregate demand have stabilized at the margin in the last quarter. Since the BCB assumes that the impacts of the international environment on the Brazilian economy will be strong (see again &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/this-post-is-exercise-based-on-sort-of.html" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), one possible reading is that something has to be done. Expectations are very important for decisions such as durable goods consumption, housing acquisitions and firms’ investment, for instance, and uncertainty contributes to mess with them, so the aggregate demand could growth less or even contract due the contagion. I’m still not sure. Yes, it will hurt the economy, but the impact will be big enough in the aggregate consumption and investment decisions? I don’t know.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;iv) The exchange rate channel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Another channel is the exchange rate. Lower interest rates would attract less capital (or actually produce an outflow of fixed income portfolio foreign investment) and would reduce the value of the domestic currency (a lower interest rate could in the medium-run produce more inflation, another way to devalue the domestic currency). Assuming a Marshall-Lerner condition, this would stimulate exports and, holding everything else constant, would increase the GDP, income, consumption, investment, etc.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Well, since mid-2011 the BRL has been devalued and since a great part of the Brazilian exports are commodities, a) there are already some evidences of a low influence of the exchange rate in basic goods (if you know Portuguese I recommend this work of my former two professors , &lt;a href="http://bibliotecadigital.fgv.br/dspace/handle/10438/6627" target="_blank"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;), so the impact would be more in the inefficient industry goods (there are better ways to promote efficiency and stimulate it) and b) the external demand for industry goods will probably decrease with the crisis, so the impact of an exchange rate devaluation could be null.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;Anyway, let’s see a graph of the exchange rate (BRL/USD, probably it would be better to see the real effective exchange rate, but let’s use it anyway:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-F3w9i6Ow3ng/TuDX7Z0wN5I/AAAAAAAAARE/cXhxfd5559A/s1600/exchange+rate.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="114" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-F3w9i6Ow3ng/TuDX7Z0wN5I/AAAAAAAAARE/cXhxfd5559A/s320/exchange+rate.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;v) Final remarks&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;If you remember the first picture of this post, the channels of the monetary policy, the last box was…inflation. As I have already written in this blog, in Brazil the problem is not the lack of aggregate demand, but the concomitant management of external shocks and a robust aggregate demand. I showed that two components of aggregate demand have stabilized at the margin in the last quarter, what do not mean that the robustness is over.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;For a while now the 12-month past inflation has been above the upper-bound of the target (the target is 4,5% but who cares now?). OK, the BCB might target the future inflation, not the past (or current, given the monetary policy lags), but there’s some inertial component and this may anchor expectations in a high level. If the external damage in the next months hurts the economy in a way that these preventive actions of the BCB (and the Government as whole in the fiscal front) will not boost inflation, the timing is perfect. However, if the entity is not right, the bet may cost a lot in terms of social welfare. Let’s see what happens.&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-271176238231566908?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/271176238231566908/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/monetary-policy-transmission-and.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/271176238231566908'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/271176238231566908'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/monetary-policy-transmission-and.html' title='Monetary policy transmission and Brazilian economy'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1h8Gd3usB4Q/TuCzm5T9VQI/AAAAAAAAAQU/KAECu8jKZL8/s72-c/monetary+policy+transmission+flow.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5307232763613712081</id><published>2011-12-07T23:13:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-12-07T23:13:27.223Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economic Policy'/><title type='text'>NY Times Opinion's Talk</title><content type='html'>&lt;iframe frameborder="0" height="340" scrolling="no" src="http://cdn.livestream.com/embed/nytimesopinion?layout=4&amp;amp;clip=pla_78fcad65-d9a4-494f-8637-58f119761731&amp;amp;height=340&amp;amp;width=560&amp;amp;autoplay=false" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px;" width="560"&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="font-size: 11px; padding-top: 10px; text-align: center; width: 560px;"&gt;Watch &lt;a href="http://www.livestream.com/?utm_source=lsplayer&amp;amp;utm_medium=embed&amp;amp;utm_campaign=footerlinks" title="live streaming video"&gt;live streaming video&lt;/a&gt; from &lt;a href="http://www.livestream.com/nytimesopinion?utm_source=lsplayer&amp;amp;utm_medium=embed&amp;amp;utm_campaign=footerlinks" title="Watch nytimesopinion at livestream.com"&gt;nytimesopinion&lt;/a&gt; at livestream.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5307232763613712081?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5307232763613712081/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/ny-times-opinions-talk.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5307232763613712081'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5307232763613712081'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/ny-times-opinions-talk.html' title='NY Times Opinion&apos;s Talk'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6264458955901075167</id><published>2011-12-06T13:36:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-12-06T13:36:13.157Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Monetary Policy'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Educational'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='International Trade'/><title type='text'>Games</title><content type='html'>A great tip from &lt;a href="http://www.cristianomcosta.com/" target="_blank"&gt;Cristiano M. Costa&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.ecb.europa.eu/ecb/educational/economia/html/index.en.html" target="_blank"&gt;The Monetary Policy Game&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- &lt;a href="http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/economics/trade/" target="_blank"&gt;The Hecksher-Ohlin World&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Have fun!&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6264458955901075167?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6264458955901075167/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/games.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6264458955901075167'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6264458955901075167'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/games.html' title='Games'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-7146540860076505931</id><published>2011-12-05T15:10:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-12-05T15:10:52.739Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Real Exchange Rates'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='WTO'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='International Trade'/><title type='text'>WTO and exchange rates misalignments</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/7382" target="_blank"&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-7146540860076505931?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/7146540860076505931/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/wto-and-exchange-rates-misalignments.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7146540860076505931'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7146540860076505931'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/12/wto-and-exchange-rates-misalignments.html' title='WTO and exchange rates misalignments'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3228655019758118175</id><published>2011-11-27T16:49:00.003Z</published><updated>2011-11-27T17:03:15.382Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflation'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Brazil'/><title type='text'>Inflation prognostic in Brazil: hybrid Phillips curve approach</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;This post is an exercise based on a sort of new-keynesian supply-side dynamics. As I’ve pointed out in a last post (&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/some-thoughts-on-brazilian-interest.html"&gt;Some thoughts on Brazilian interest rate&lt;/a&gt;), the situation in Brazil is very different from the countries in the Eurozone and the US, where the main problem is the lack of aggregate demand and some political issues that influence policymakers and deepen the crisis. In Brazil, the question is to accommodate the price dynamics given a robust aggregate demand and the potential contagion of the international environment.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;Within the presented framework I've analyzed how the inflation might behave in 2012 based on the following equation:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-JndqhARL9BY/TtI15VaS-1I/AAAAAAAAAP0/ZZVzk3P9ab0/s1600/hybrid+phillps+curve+equation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="123" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-JndqhARL9BY/TtI15VaS-1I/AAAAAAAAAP0/ZZVzk3P9ab0/s400/hybrid+phillps+curve+equation.jpg" width="400" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;For the expected inflation I used the median market expectations – 5,55% – given by the last Focus-Market Readout published (&lt;a href="http://www4.bcb.gov.br/gci-i/Readout/R20111118.pdf"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;). Since the inflation of 2011 is not known yet, I used the median of market expectations but rounded up – so, 6,5%. For the GDP gap I used three scenarios, where the contribution to inflation is -0,3%, -0,4% and -0,5%. This means that the GDP growth rate will be bellow the potential output growth rate. Given the Focus expectations for the next year growth, I think this a fair assumption. For the supply shocks I used a different approach. I calculated the required contribution of the supply shock to bring inflation back to the center of the target (4,5%).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The calculation of the expected inflation in the following tables assumes that the supply shock is zero. I also varied the weight of expectations to see whether different kind of agents could bring the inflation back to the center of the target, or in other words, given different sorts of inflation inertia how is the prognostic.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;This first table shows that, without any supply shock, the inflation will be between 5,05% (in a fully forward-looking behavior) and 6% (backward-looking behavior). I believe in something 5,53%-5,62% with the information set available today. Another analysis from this table is the magnitude range of the supply shock in order to bring the inflation back to the target. It’s something between -0,55% and -1,50%.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-G6wqprrMoW4/TtJj5i_gJUI/AAAAAAAAAP8/QsCTz8diNZ4/s1600/table+pc1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="199" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-G6wqprrMoW4/TtJj5i_gJUI/AAAAAAAAAP8/QsCTz8diNZ4/s320/table+pc1.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The following tables considerer a higher (less negative) output gap contribution for the inflation in 2012:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HN7qP4tWdPI/TtJmgRH33XI/AAAAAAAAAQE/b1XQmZjXuCs/s1600/table+pc2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="199" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HN7qP4tWdPI/TtJmgRH33XI/AAAAAAAAAQE/b1XQmZjXuCs/s320/table+pc2.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UhdRKMCbc0Y/TtJmkGex3WI/AAAAAAAAAQM/nMMOwF7uREc/s1600/table+pc3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="199" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UhdRKMCbc0Y/TtJmkGex3WI/AAAAAAAAAQM/nMMOwF7uREc/s320/table+pc3.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;It seems the inflation will be within the target range (center 4,5%; +/- 2%), but it will hardly achieve the 4,5% goal unless a great shock occur. And that’s the Brazilian Central Bank bet (from the last &lt;a href="http://www.bcb.gov.br/htms/relinf/ing/2011/09/ri201109c6i.pdf" target="_blank"&gt;Inflation Outlook&lt;/a&gt;):&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;"An alternative scenario, built and analyzed under the perspective of a medium-size dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model, considers that the current deterioration of the international scenario has an impact on the Brazilian economy equivalent to one quarter of the one observed in 2008/2009. This impact was evaluated through the analysis of the path of variables seen as transmission channels of the external developments to the domestic economy, such as external trade, import prices and external volatility (measured by the Chicago Board Options Exchange Market Volatility Index – VIX). The alternative scenario also assumes that the current deterioration of the international scenario is more persistent than the one observed in 2008/2009, though milder, without the observance of extreme events. In this alternative scenario, the domestic economic activity slows down, and despite the effects of exchange rate depreciation and reduction of the policy interest rate, among others, the inflation rate reaches a lower level than what would be observed if the previously mentioned effect of the international crisis were not considered. In this context, still considering projections generated by other models, the inflation projection is 6.4% for 2011, and 4.7% for 2012. In the third quarter of 2013, the projection is 4.8%."&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3228655019758118175?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3228655019758118175/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/this-post-is-exercise-based-on-sort-of.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3228655019758118175'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3228655019758118175'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/this-post-is-exercise-based-on-sort-of.html' title='Inflation prognostic in Brazil: hybrid Phillips curve approach'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-JndqhARL9BY/TtI15VaS-1I/AAAAAAAAAP0/ZZVzk3P9ab0/s72-c/hybrid+phillps+curve+equation.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-7212258114627493595</id><published>2011-11-25T11:47:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-11-25T11:47:11.726Z</updated><title type='text'>Google Scholar Citations Open To All - Google Scholar Blog</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://googlescholar.blogspot.com/2011/11/google-scholar-citations-open-to-all.html"&gt;Google Scholar Citations Open To All - Google Scholar Blog&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-7212258114627493595?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/7212258114627493595/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/google-scholar-citations-open-to-all.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7212258114627493595'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7212258114627493595'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/google-scholar-citations-open-to-all.html' title='Google Scholar Citations Open To All - Google Scholar Blog'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-999418597920869026</id><published>2011-11-23T18:49:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-11-23T18:49:34.678Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Forecasts'/><title type='text'>World in 2012</title><content type='html'>How will be the world next year?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.economist.com/theworldin/2012" target="_blank"&gt;The Economist answers&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-999418597920869026?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/999418597920869026/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/world-in-2012.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/999418597920869026'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/999418597920869026'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/world-in-2012.html' title='World in 2012'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1867899277593637770</id><published>2011-11-23T12:13:00.000Z</published><updated>2011-11-23T12:13:59.703Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Students'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Academic'/><title type='text'>For Grad Students</title><content type='html'>An advice posted on &lt;a href="http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"&gt;Greg Mankiw's blog&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href="http://arielrubinstein.tau.ac.il/8QA.pdf" target="_blank"&gt;Here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1867899277593637770?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1867899277593637770/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/for-grad-students.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1867899277593637770'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1867899277593637770'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/for-grad-students.html' title='For Grad Students'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6309353092416977439</id><published>2011-11-20T22:08:00.007Z</published><updated>2011-11-21T00:51:00.549Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Brasil'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Interest Rate'/><title type='text'>Some thoughts on Brazilian interest rate</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Amid an uncertain prognostic due to a severe crisis within the Eurozone countries and a less-than-satisfactory recovery in the biggest nation in the world, Brazil has to accommodate the external impacts with internal imbalances. This post is dedicated to some of these internal imbalances.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Notably the Brazilian nominal policy rate (SELIC) is too high when compared with several countries. The following graph shows the behavior of the nominal policy rate:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gAwXZlvFp6o/TsleceZDr8I/AAAAAAAAAPE/VAm8wjBevEo/s1600/selic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gAwXZlvFp6o/TsleceZDr8I/AAAAAAAAAPE/VAm8wjBevEo/s320/selic.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Why it has to be so high? Well, the answer – if exists – is not so simple. I do not intend to cover all the motives, nevertheless, that’s why I divided the analysis in three parts:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;1) On loanable funds&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A first argument is based on the savings rate. Lower savings for a given demand of resources would result in an equilibrium with a higher interest rate, whereas more availability of capital could reduce the interest rates. A simple supply-demand analysis, synthesized in the following graph:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4MHN1yCdZB4/TslirDH4xTI/AAAAAAAAAPM/akvW7w_8cPo/s1600/loanable+funds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="235" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4MHN1yCdZB4/TslirDH4xTI/AAAAAAAAAPM/akvW7w_8cPo/s320/loanable+funds.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;where the r¹ is the interest rate that equilibrates the savings (S¹) – supply – and the investments (I) – demand; analogously, the index 2 is for a situation with a lower amount of capital saved.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The problem of a low savings rate arises not only from the private sector, but also from the government. The result is the need of external resources, implying in a negative current account balance, as exposed in the next graph:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-kdIv8heyyAQ/Tslk60OS5xI/AAAAAAAAAPU/jiDUwvyD55I/s1600/CA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-kdIv8heyyAQ/Tslk60OS5xI/AAAAAAAAAPU/jiDUwvyD55I/s320/CA.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Quick note: looking at the behavior of the five-year average of the CA balance reveals that the behavior may be changing. However, with the financial crisis and now with the debt crisis, it’s difficult to isolate pattern changes and collateral damage.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The current account balance can be seen as result of an intertemporal optimization between consumption and saving. In this case the households have decided to consume more now. At the same time, the decision made by Asian households for saving more made feasible the utilization of the resources by the Brazilians. But this capital flow has a price. The capital will not go to Brazil unless its marginal productivity is attractive. Otherwise it could go to the US and take advantage of the low risk bonds offered by the Uncle Sam.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There are two ways to offer high marginal productivity: by high financial returns, or through returns on the real economy. In the first that lies another source of an incentive to maintain high interest rates. To attract and keep the capital within the country, the financial market has to offer a great opportunity by acquiring capital with low interest rates internationally, and applying the resources in the Brazilian financial market to earn the interest differential (the famous carry trade). And it has worked.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The second way relies on the incentives to invest in Brazil.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;2) Investment (dis)incentives&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Another source of incentives for high interest rates is the low level of investment. It is actually foreseeable, since several macroeconomic models use the equivalence of savings, one could expect that low savings would result in low investment. Economists know that in the long run the accumulation of capital does not explain differences in development level, measured for instance in GDP per capita. Notwithstanding this is a business cycle analysis (i.e. short/medium run), so it’s a relevant factor. The following graph shows the annual dynamic of investment evaluated as a ratio of GDP:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pmsrcekQkXU/TslpBXpQAtI/AAAAAAAAAPc/G6I9nn4-c3U/s1600/investment.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pmsrcekQkXU/TslpBXpQAtI/AAAAAAAAAPc/G6I9nn4-c3U/s320/investment.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;But in an emerging market with a great prospect as this one, why the investment rate is so low. Well, this answer is also very complicated, but I have some suspect:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VSiHs_GEudc/TslrMeKY_rI/AAAAAAAAAPk/mvbUwRuHCqw/s1600/tax+burden.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VSiHs_GEudc/TslrMeKY_rI/AAAAAAAAAPk/mvbUwRuHCqw/s320/tax+burden.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Other motives may be listed as infra-structure gaps, institutional issues and so on. In the end, high interest rates and low level of investment yields modest real growth rates of GDP:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-vJYf8QLjWMU/TsltUpGXrrI/AAAAAAAAAPs/YrqB9ew9Gi8/s1600/gdp+real+growth.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-vJYf8QLjWMU/TsltUpGXrrI/AAAAAAAAAPs/YrqB9ew9Gi8/s320/gdp+real+growth.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;3) Consumption and International CAPM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There’s a more elaborate reason why the Brazilian interest rate is so high. Using the models International and Consumption CAPM, due to a portfolio optimization approach an exchange rate risk premium emerges and affects the interest level.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- International CAPM&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;In a nutshell, this model states that an exchange rate risk premium may arise in order to compensate the representative investor for deviating from the portfolio of minimum variance. Risk currencies should reward more investors to be exposed to it. Just risk and return, applied to international macroeconomics.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Consumption CAPM&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Briefly, the Consumption CAPM has the same logic of the International CAPM (if I’m not wrong, the International CAPM can be showed as a special case of the Consumption CAPM), but the reward for the representative household is not based on a portfolio of minimum variance, but instead takes into account the consumption pattern, meaning that, for instance, more exposure to a given currency through consumption would lead to a lower exchange rate risk premium (if my consumption bundle is in dollars and the dollar rises, I have to expend more, but if my investment is also in dollars, I neutralize this effect).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Based on both models, the mismatch between consumption exposure and investment from both national and international investors, and the distance between the share of the BRL in the investor's actual portfolio and the share in the portfolio of minimum variance yields an exchange rate risk premium that induces higher interest rates. A simple formula synthesizes this (in logs):&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;i = i* + E[e²-e¹] + RP&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;where "i" is the national interest rate and is given by the international interest rate (i*) plus the expected exchange rate variation, plus the risk premium.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;4) Some final remarks&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Obviously Brazilian economic fundamentals are far better than 20 or 30 years ago, and the progress after the implementation of the “real plan” before and within the double mandate of President FHC and the continuation with the economic basis in the double mandate of President Lula is very clear.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;While the whole developed world is discussing what to do since there’s no room for monetary policy (well, that’s actually what should be discussed, but European policymakers are really putting some effort in the euro break up by cutting expenditure, rising taxes and hopping that these actions will bring some confidence and households will consume and firms will invest and hire again – they won’t), Brazil is in a interesting place where if the fiscal front remain austere (and actually increase austerity toward reduction of expenditures and not by increasing govern revenues as have been doing), the monetary policy can be used to fight the impacts of a possible new external credit crunch by cutting the SELIC and inducing a new (low) level of the neutral interest rate.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The only problem is whether the bet made by the Brazilian Central Bank in this scenario will materialize or if the crisis will not impact the country, and the more than 9% 12-month accumulated services inflation, plus the strong credit growth and the low unemployment rate will somehow affect the price dynamic in a way that will call a hawkish posture of the central bank. I hope they are right.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6309353092416977439?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6309353092416977439/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/some-thoughts-on-brazilian-interest.html#comment-form' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6309353092416977439'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6309353092416977439'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/some-thoughts-on-brazilian-interest.html' title='Some thoughts on Brazilian interest rate'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gAwXZlvFp6o/TsleceZDr8I/AAAAAAAAAPE/VAm8wjBevEo/s72-c/selic.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-7595677531975427382</id><published>2011-11-13T15:45:00.004Z</published><updated>2011-11-13T16:30:52.770Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Real Exchange Rates'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Real exchange rates and Eurozone issues</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;I’ve discussed the problems of joining a non-optimal currency area (by the way, I received some comments about the non-existence of an optimal currency area in real life, and I do agree about the distance between theory and practice, but I use the first just to understand the impacts on the second) especially focusing on Portugal. In a previous post (&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html"&gt;The price of a non-optimal currency area&lt;/a&gt;) I exposed the theoretical framework with some stylized facts to support that some painful structural changes in order to accommodate the single currency may be the cause of the recent dynamic of the Portuguese economy. This is a complementary post. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The evolution of the real exchange rate incorporates several issues (including productivity differentials) and may help to explain why even in periods of growth the Portuguese unemployment rate hardly falls. Under some sort of &lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall%E2%80%93Lerner_condition"&gt;Marshall-Lerner condition&lt;/a&gt;, a depreciation of the real exchange rate stimulates exports improving the current account balance. On the opposite way, an appreciation of the real exchange rates stimulates imports, reducing the current account balance.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In this analysis I used an ad hoc concept of real exchange rate (RER), focusing on the bilateral relation with Germany. Since the &lt;a href="http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/research/work/wpaper9.pdf"&gt;PPP version of the formula for the RER&lt;/a&gt; is given by:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;RER = e . (P*/P)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;where e is the nominal exchange rate, P* stands for the international prices index (in this particular case, German prices) and P is national price index. The data was obtained from the &lt;a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/index.aspx"&gt;World Economic Outlook Database of September 2011&lt;/a&gt;, available on the IMF’s website. Inflation is computed with the average consumer inflation for all countries. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Note: there are several ways to calculate real exchange rates, incorporating Balassa-Samuelson effects and other features, nevertheless I decided for simplicity to use PPP version just as a direction referential, not focusing on the calculated value itself.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;1) Real Exchange Rates in trouble countries&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The exercise with Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and Spain shows a common appreciation trend. Remembering that the nominal exchange rate is fixed, this was mainly caused by reduction on German prices. Ireland stands out by reversing this trend in 2009 and 2010 (it's difficult to separate crisis impacts and internal changes).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yEppqFjwq_U/Tr_a69Q-Y2I/AAAAAAAAAOM/AXpmjbg6vXg/s1600/rer+trouble+countries.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yEppqFjwq_U/Tr_a69Q-Y2I/AAAAAAAAAOM/AXpmjbg6vXg/s320/rer+trouble+countries.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2) Real Exchange Rates and Current Account balances&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The current account (CA) balances of the five studied countries seem to follow the evolution of the RER. A remark should be done here. The current account balance is influenced by other factors such as intertemporal saving decisions, supply shocks, external demand shocks and so on. Moreover, the current account balances involve others countries, not just Germany. But I do think it is a meaningful analysis comparing this ad hoc RER and the CA in order to see whether in some way, productivity differentials influence these results. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Even if Germany and theses countries export different products, it’s easy to see that, for instance, if they were in a CA equilibrium, and Germany becomes more productive, German products became cheaper, increasing demand for this products (assuming a negatively sloped external demand function, a trivial assumption) and the quantity-price relation may cause a German CA surplus, resulting in a deficit with the other countries.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The right axis is for the CA and the left axis is for the RER:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2.1) Greece&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-N7BeZgVbCtI/Tr_kgbI8oCI/AAAAAAAAAOU/Mzn59bIzEZo/s1600/greece+rer+x+ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-N7BeZgVbCtI/Tr_kgbI8oCI/AAAAAAAAAOU/Mzn59bIzEZo/s320/greece+rer+x+ca.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2.2) Ireland &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5AU2EXFqmJo/Tr_kmn__DyI/AAAAAAAAAOc/mIEKLHdocYE/s1600/ireland+rer+x+ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5AU2EXFqmJo/Tr_kmn__DyI/AAAAAAAAAOc/mIEKLHdocYE/s320/ireland+rer+x+ca.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2.3) Italy &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m8gzEdRS3UU/Tr_krWbgu3I/AAAAAAAAAOk/V3h427Oxy_g/s1600/italy+rer+x+ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m8gzEdRS3UU/Tr_krWbgu3I/AAAAAAAAAOk/V3h427Oxy_g/s320/italy+rer+x+ca.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2.4) Portugal&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XPfOlHXOIZM/Tr_kwEqFThI/AAAAAAAAAOs/oZRGyoo1QEA/s1600/portugal+rer+x+ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XPfOlHXOIZM/Tr_kwEqFThI/AAAAAAAAAOs/oZRGyoo1QEA/s320/portugal+rer+x+ca.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;2.5) Spain &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fEKa2NotGhI/Tr_kzvbJbAI/AAAAAAAAAO0/bYz8FLRRero/s1600/spain+rer+x+ca.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fEKa2NotGhI/Tr_kzvbJbAI/AAAAAAAAAO0/bYz8FLRRero/s320/spain+rer+x+ca.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;3) Portugal: RER and Unemployment – Structural change?&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The next graph shows the relation between real exchange rate and unemployment rate. Obviously correlation does not imply causality (even when we are talking about a strong correlation of -0.80 as in this case), however, the theory could support some worries about NAIRU hysteresis arising from an accommodation path to the monetary union.&amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ISY4LdhW2DM/Tr_lOAtkxII/AAAAAAAAAO8/Xr-0yQxXMPo/s1600/portugal+rer+x+unemployment.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="201" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ISY4LdhW2DM/Tr_lOAtkxII/AAAAAAAAAO8/Xr-0yQxXMPo/s320/portugal+rer+x+unemployment.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-7595677531975427382?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/7595677531975427382/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/real-exchange-rates-and-eurozone-issues.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7595677531975427382'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7595677531975427382'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/real-exchange-rates-and-eurozone-issues.html' title='Real exchange rates and Eurozone issues'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yEppqFjwq_U/Tr_a69Q-Y2I/AAAAAAAAAOM/AXpmjbg6vXg/s72-c/rer+trouble+countries.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2562839527880626956</id><published>2011-11-09T16:08:00.001Z</published><updated>2011-11-09T16:25:58.256Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>Discussing Roubini’s four options</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Nouriel Roubini does not need to be presented, especially after the 2008 financial crisis. In a recent text called&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class="apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;"&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.roubini.com/analysis/165338.php" style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial;"&gt;Four Options to Address the Eurozone's Stock and Flow Imbalances: The Rising Risk of a Disorderly Break-Up&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="float: none; text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;"&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;– or see&amp;nbsp;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://clicks.skem1.com/archive/view/?c=2yEbs&amp;amp;g=10598"&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;– he discusses four possible paths for the so-called Euro Zone:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;1) Growth and competiveness are restored&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;One of the main sources of the Europe’s crisis is the competitiveness differential between core and peripheral countries. Roubini argues that a monetary/fiscal stimulus in the core countries and fiscal austerity and structural reforms in the periphery could sustain the monetary union. From my point of view in this case i) policymakers should understand once for all that fiscal contraction has negative impacts on GDP and employment in both short and long-run (if you know Portuguese, see my post&amp;nbsp;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/crise-mundial-austeridade-so-vai-piorar.html"&gt;Crise mundial: austeridade só vai piorar a situação&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;; see also IMF’s text,&amp;nbsp;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/Ball.htm"&gt;Painful Medicine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;) and would implement fiscal and monetary policies in order to stimulate growth appropriately; ii) the structural reforms on the periphery would restore confidence among investors and other players of the market about the sustainability of the Euro Zone, diminishing volatility and uncertain, bringing back growth, consumption, investment, exports, employment, etc; iii) peripheral countries would experience an painful adjustment (see next topic) ; iv) peripheral countries that experienced a massive credit supply would be constrained (until the next boom-bust period) and after a painful reform they would “fit” in the monetary union appropriately. I'm not sure if this situation is sustainable without fiscal integration, but seems the best path to be adopted.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;2) A deflationary/depressionary adjustment&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;As I’ve discussed in&amp;nbsp;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html"&gt;The price of a non-optimal currency area&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, the adjustment that is usually done via the nominal exchange rate is now achieved using other(s) variable(s). In a nutshell, in this scenario the non-competitive countries would experience painful reductions on wages and prices (mark ups would fall first, then the lack of demand would reduce labor demand, bringing wages down, reducing costs and prices) until restore competiveness amid a recession. Only after competitiveness is restored the exports will be stimulated, increasing income, consumption, investment, etc. To achieve this, some painful consequences as a rise on NAIRU, many years without growth (or with low growth) and a loss in welfare, for instance, could happen. That’s the euro’s price for those countries that weren’t ready to be in a fixed exchange rate regime with so different nations. There's also the problem of how would be the dynamic of the global economy with a depressed Europe. With capital flow, international trade and even some sort of labor mobility, other countries would be impacted until the adjustment is completely done (considering that no other kind of negative shock will occur, otherwise things could get even uglier).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;3) The core permanently subsidizes the periphery&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A third option would be the core countries paying the bill. Seems unfair? Well, who in the first place lent too much to those countries that are now with debt problems? In this scenario, the core countries via unilateral transfers would try to avoid a break-up helping the periphery and trying to restore confidence on the sustainability of the euro by ensuring that a sort of lender of last resort would be there, avoiding self-fulfilling crisis. This could diminish the pressure on peripheral countries, giving them more time to deal with structural changes, and avoiding that they would be “stuck in an outcome of permanent stagnation and loss of competitiveness”. I personally do not bet on this case, not only because would emerge a big moral hazard problem, but specially because I think that would be very difficult for German/French politicians to explain their electors they would use their money to pay for other country’s behavior. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;4) The EZ breaks up&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The situation among countries within the Euro Zone achieves an unsustainable level amid recessions, austerity and debt restructuring programs. The massive unemployment, lack of aggregate demand among, deflation, volatility on financial markets and other problems in some countries would induce an economic situation such that politicians can no longer defend the euro. The only way would be to return to national currencies and absorb the impacts of a break up on the European project of a single currency. At that time, there would be an uncoordinated movement of leaving the euro. This would bring more volatility, huge fall in investment and impact in many macroeconomic variables. In the end, the competitiveness would be restored by adjustment on the exchange rate (possibly with outflow of capital driving it). I personally think that the way policymakers are managing this crisis is rising the&amp;nbsp;probability&amp;nbsp;of this situation. I really want to believe that some sort of situation 1 could arise, but I do not see a happy ending for a single currency adopted by so many different nations without fiscal integration.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2562839527880626956?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2562839527880626956/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/discussing-roubinis-four-options.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2562839527880626956'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2562839527880626956'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/discussing-roubinis-four-options.html' title='Discussing Roubini’s four options'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3469923262906716052</id><published>2011-11-03T21:45:00.002Z</published><updated>2011-12-10T16:10:00.435Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Euro Zone'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomics'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crisis'/><title type='text'>The price of a non-optimal currency area</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;It’s very obvious that the Euro Zone was built based on a political project, beyond the economic fundamentals. The countries have given up monetary policy in order to fulfill this political agenda but do not accommodated fiscal issues in order to maintain stable (and I’m not even sure that would resolve the problems, but anyway) the system. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The reforms in Germany, for instance, made the country much more productive, and this increase in productivity was not accompanied by other countries (e.g. Greece, Portugal and Spain). These differences have to be incorporated in the dynamics of the economies within the euro area. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The role of variable of adjustment that usually remains for the exchange rate has now to be done for other(s) variable(s). The velocity, however, is not the same, so is the adjustment.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In a short-run/medium-run analysis under the relation of aggregate demand and aggregate supply we can see how this adjustment has been done and what has been the collateral damage to some economies for being part of a non-optimal currency area.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;i) Stylized facts&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;In order to illustrate some sort of international competitiveness indicator, the evolution of the current account as a percentage of GDP for Portugal is shown in the following graph:&amp;nbsp;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0XeD-RqIra4/TrL-LUE_eII/AAAAAAAAANw/qloIU5uEii8/s1600/current+account+portugal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0XeD-RqIra4/TrL-LUE_eII/AAAAAAAAANw/qloIU5uEii8/s320/current+account+portugal.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"&gt;From 2000 to 2010, Portugal registered huge current account deficits. In the same period, this is the Germany’s current account:&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-T-WygB8xPmg/TrL-LM60hjI/AAAAAAAAANs/DC5lReOAkU4/s1600/current+account+germany.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-T-WygB8xPmg/TrL-LM60hjI/AAAAAAAAANs/DC5lReOAkU4/s320/current+account+germany.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;Obviously there are other factors that influence the current account result of a given country, such as intertemporal decision between consumption and saving (domestic and foreign), but the huge difference between both countries may be considered as a signal of warning. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;One can argue that the Portuguese current account deficits were always well financed with foreign resources. Well, from my point of view after the euro this just happened because the euro zone is/was some sort of unstable pooling equilibrium, where international investors could not distinguish “good countries” from “bad countries” and the (irrational?) expectation with the good impacts of the monetary union somehow “transformed” every county in Germany (look the initial fall/convergence in the CDS, before the warnings of the 2008 financial crisis).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;But that's a subject for another post.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"&gt;In the same period, the unemployment rate in Portugal rose from 4,5% in 2000 to 12% in 2010:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-11pk3Pl-1LA/TrL-LqLn9FI/AAAAAAAAAN4/VJ_7HTHWuSA/s1600/unemployment+portugal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="184" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-11pk3Pl-1LA/TrL-LqLn9FI/AAAAAAAAAN4/VJ_7HTHWuSA/s320/unemployment+portugal.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Why?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"&gt;ii) Theoretical Framework&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;Since there’s no flexible exchange rate to restore competitiveness, the adjustment can arise from the price dynamics. In the short-run, there’s some sort of nominal rigidity in both goods and services markets and in the labor market, so the adjustment is not instantaneous. With the productivity differentials, the Portuguese goods (for simplicity I’ll&amp;nbsp; just say goods, by it counts for services too) are less competitive than, let’s say, German goods. So its relative demand falls. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;The fall in demand first induces firms to first reduce mark-ups, and then labor demand. The new equilibrium in labor market with less demand, decreases the wages (it takes time to do so).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"&gt;The following graph represents the case of a fall in labor demand (Ld) for a given labor supply (Ls):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-h71b9EZC7kc/TrMJYtvW6MI/AAAAAAAAAOE/Dxcz0gKbezo/s1600/labor+market.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="244" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-h71b9EZC7kc/TrMJYtvW6MI/AAAAAAAAAOE/Dxcz0gKbezo/s320/labor+market.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;where W/P is the real wage and L is the amount of labor&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;(I’ve showed Ld = Ls as a equilibrium just to illustrate a special case where the mark ups fall was such that the Portuguese firms have almost no market power. However, increases in mark up would result in shifts of the amount of labor demanded along the Ld curve and labor demand would not coincide necessarily with labor supply).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 18px;"&gt;In the medium run the price adjustment could induce the Aggregate Supply curve to shift along the Aggregate Demand curve. The logic is that the fall in prices would reach a level that they would be competitive again (just because the prices were too low), stimulating exports, expanding income, then consumption, investment and so on, as the following graph:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HxJRjzdHtVE/Tn47bE2HWGI/AAAAAAAAALs/L_o2G6R-3lU/s1600/as-ad+aggregate+supply+moving.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="186" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HxJRjzdHtVE/Tn47bE2HWGI/AAAAAAAAALs/L_o2G6R-3lU/s320/as-ad+aggregate+supply+moving.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px;"&gt;(source:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~mchinn/e302_lecture26_s11.pdf" style="background-color: white; color: #5588aa; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;"&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;- slide 6; hint of&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/24/bully-for-the-baltics/" style="background-color: white; color: #5588aa; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;"&gt;Paul Krugman&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px;"&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: 800; line-height: 18px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"&gt;&lt;span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"&gt;&lt;span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"&gt;The problem is that the rise in unemployment rate may be a consequence of an hysteresis in NAIRU (non-accelerating rate of unemployment), in particular a high NAIRU, resulting in a structural shift of the Portuguese economy in order to accommodate the euro. Is it worth? &amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3469923262906716052?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3469923262906716052/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3469923262906716052'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3469923262906716052'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/11/price-of-non-optimal-currency-area.html' title='The price of a non-optimal currency area'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0XeD-RqIra4/TrL-LUE_eII/AAAAAAAAANw/qloIU5uEii8/s72-c/current+account+portugal.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6956795947940149781</id><published>2011-10-31T22:05:00.004Z</published><updated>2011-11-01T12:29:57.585Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><title type='text'>Tough times require bold actions</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;There’s a discussion about the future of macroeconomic policy especially after the low velocity of recovery from the 2008 financial crisis. A new strategy for the U.S. policymakers could be targeting nominal gross domestic product (NGDP). Let’s work on it a little.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i) How bad is the situation?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The impacts of the 2008 financial crisis that emerged in the U.S. housing market and spread out abroad, bringing harm not only to the financial sector, but also to the real-side of the economy are still present in the American recovery. Actually, the lack of recovery is the problem. Three years have gone since Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy and the GDP gap - even though is not widening - is still big:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjJANUx6-bM/TnY7vSmiSRI/AAAAAAAAALo/t1tEFa7cT14/s1600/potential+gdp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="179" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjJANUx6-bM/TnY7vSmiSRI/AAAAAAAAALo/t1tEFa7cT14/s320/potential+gdp.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The unemployment rate rose sharply and remained in dangerous level since them:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-rezCcB--RV0/TnY7WlZsh5I/AAAAAAAAALk/iOt-KB4fn0o/s1600/unemployement.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="178" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-rezCcB--RV0/TnY7WlZsh5I/AAAAAAAAALk/iOt-KB4fn0o/s320/unemployement.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii) What has been tried?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;An initial monetary response was cutting the nominal interest rates. But as everybody knows, there’s a threshold for this kind of action, and it was reached. The nominal interest rate cannot go below the zero bound. Some other monetary attempts have been implemented, and they have been called as “quantitative easing” (with two versions of it). In a nutshell, was a combination of injecting money in the system and dealing with trouble assets held by banks.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Well, when the economy is in a liquidity trap, monetary policy loses its efficiency. A fiscal attempt could have been implemented, however, some politicians (and rating agencies) seem to be worried about the U.S. debt level and has became extreme difficult for the White House to do some more fiscal stimulus (during 2009 the congress approved a response to the economic crisis called &lt;a href="http://www.recovery.gov/About/Pages/The_Act.aspx"&gt;Recovery Act&lt;/a&gt;, but wasn’t enough).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iii) What else can be done?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Since implement any fiscal stimulus in order to restore aggregate demand, bring the unemployment rate down and put the economy back on track to a solid growth path has became a Herculean task, some economists have been wondering if there’s another way to the policymakers intervene in the economy. An important feature of both monetary and fiscal policy is to act through expectations. Part of economic decisions such as investment, consumption and hiring are made not only considering the current economic environment, but also putting into the account the agent’s future expectations regarding how the economy will behave.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;That’s why &lt;a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/30/business/economy/ben-bernanke-needs-a-volcker-moment.html?_r=1"&gt;Christina Romer&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/30/a-volcker-moment-indeed-slightly-wonkish/"&gt;Paul Krugman&lt;/a&gt; among others have advocated in favor of a target for NGDP.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A radical shift in the way monetary policy has been conducted may cause a good shock into agent’s expectations. If the Federal Reserve commits with a target for nominal GDP, it would still considering its dual mandate – price stability and economic growth – and could stimulate consumption and investment since a credible commitment with growth would be installed and the households could expect a better situation in the future.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;This better situation in the future could emerge from this belief of households, that would increase the level of spending and the firms would also invest more, creating a kind of self-fulfilling recovery. I personally believe that it’s a good way to act through expectations just appealing to a very basic economic principal: &lt;u&gt;people respond to incentives&lt;/u&gt;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Since this kind of strategy does not depend on the congress willingness, it’s may be easier to be implemented. The question is whether Ben Bernanke will do that. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6956795947940149781?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6956795947940149781/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/though-times-require-bold-actions.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6956795947940149781'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6956795947940149781'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/though-times-require-bold-actions.html' title='Tough times require bold actions'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjJANUx6-bM/TnY7vSmiSRI/AAAAAAAAALo/t1tEFa7cT14/s72-c/potential+gdp.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2243140299255527501</id><published>2011-10-26T23:16:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-26T23:16:25.151+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bolha'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crédito'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economia'/><title type='text'>Mercado de Crédito no Brasil</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O Banco Central do Brasil divulgou hoje a &lt;a href="http://www.bcb.gov.br/?ECOIMPOM"&gt;Nota de Política Monetária e Operações de Crédito do SFN&lt;/a&gt;. O mercado de crédito tupiniquim não é assunto novo neste blog. Veja em &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/p/autor.html"&gt;Publicações&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;meu artigo com os professores Frederico Turolla e Mario Margarido; mais recentemente uma análise dos preços de imóveis &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-imobiliario-brasileiro-analise.html"&gt;aqui&lt;/a&gt;; análise da concentração de produtos &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/mercado-de-credito-concentracao-de.html"&gt;aqui&lt;/a&gt;; sobre as medidas macroprudenciais, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/02/medidas-macroprudenciais-financiamentos.html"&gt;aqui&lt;/a&gt;; e sobre a composição do mercado &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/10/credito-financiamentos-imobiliarios.html"&gt;aqui&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A evolução das concessões para pessoa física em determinados produtos está me deixando um pouco preocupado.&amp;nbsp;Os gráficos abaixo consideram como base 100 o volume total da modalidade em janeiro de 2005 (os demais meses foram corrigidos pela inflação - IPCA).&amp;nbsp;Vamos aos fatos estilizados:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i) Cheque Especial&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kaRduqBoETE/TqiAxuGKIkI/AAAAAAAAAMo/N9-BgxeHjkI/s1600/cheque_especial.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="193" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kaRduqBoETE/TqiAxuGKIkI/AAAAAAAAAMo/N9-BgxeHjkI/s320/cheque_especial.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O volume em setembro de 2011 das concessões feitas através do cheque especial representavam 3,82 vezes o volume de janeiro de 2005 (corrigindo pela inflação).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii) Cartão de Crédito&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZUSa1H7RUV8/TqiA9L1g9lI/AAAAAAAAAMw/A4cuH2PToNs/s1600/cartao_credito.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="193" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZUSa1H7RUV8/TqiA9L1g9lI/AAAAAAAAAMw/A4cuH2PToNs/s320/cartao_credito.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;O volume em setembro de 2011 das concessões feitas através do cartão de crédito representavam 2,92 vezes o volume de janeiro de 2005 (corrigindo pela inflação).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iii) Financiamento de Veículos&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-MSyypbMkYIc/TqiBIs3WeaI/AAAAAAAAAM4/HsZR_ZNpUvs/s1600/aquisi%25C3%25A7ao_veiculos.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="193" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-MSyypbMkYIc/TqiBIs3WeaI/AAAAAAAAAM4/HsZR_ZNpUvs/s320/aquisi%25C3%25A7ao_veiculos.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;O volume em setembro de 2011 das concessões feitas através dos financiamentos de veículos representavam 3,10 vezes o volume de janeiro de 2005 (corrigindo pela inflação).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iv) Financiamento Imobiliário&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6DCoeMvO6ZA/TqiBOrpcAUI/AAAAAAAAANA/53Hu2KLqFfg/s1600/financ_imobiliario.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="193" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6DCoeMvO6ZA/TqiBOrpcAUI/AAAAAAAAANA/53Hu2KLqFfg/s320/financ_imobiliario.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;O volume em setembro de 2011 das concessões feitas através dos financiamentos de veículos representavam 7,86 vezes o volume de janeiro de 2005 (corrigindo pela inflação).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;v) Inadimplência&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ymw-FPOj_FE/TqiCD1p_sWI/AAAAAAAAANI/TGvcKtVaQXY/s1600/over90.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="178" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ymw-FPOj_FE/TqiCD1p_sWI/AAAAAAAAANI/TGvcKtVaQXY/s320/over90.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;A inadimplência medida pelo percentual do total da carteira cujo atraso é superior a 90 dias se mostra controlada e, para alguns produtos, com uma leve tendência de queda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iv) Considerações&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;A expansão no mercado de crédito é clara. Entende-se que este é um mercado extremamente pró-cíclico, e com a dinâmica favorável nos ativos, na renda e no produto agregado no Brasil desde 2005 (salvo os efeitos da crise financeira de 2008), dentre outras variáveis macro e microeconômicas, é de se esperar aumento no volume de crédito. A razão crédito/PIB atingiu 48,4%, bem inferior a diversos países desenvolvidos (alguns dos quais originaram uma crise de crédito, então...). O que me preocupa não é a expansão, mas a sua velocidade.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"&gt;Sim, a inadimplência está sob controle, a renda do brasileiro está aumentando, etc... Nos EUA o preço das residências era dado como sempre crescente (trato disso rapidamente na minha dissertação de mestrado, disponível em&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/p/autor.html"&gt;Publicações&lt;/a&gt;), os fundamentos se inverteram, os problemas no mercado de crédito geraram uma crise comparável à Grande Depressão da década de 30 e o país não se recuperou até agora.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;É claro que a situação aqui é diferente. Parte do crescimento se dá simplesmente porque o mercado era (ou é) muito pequeno, e a taxa de expansão parece muito alta. É verdade. Contudo, ao mesmo tempo em que o Brasil ainda tem folga, pois possui um mercado relativamente pequeno, justamente pelo mercado ser pequeno é que o ritmo deve ser controlado, ajustando a curva de aprendizado dos agentes, para que lá na frente às conseqüências da reversão de algum fundamento não sejam tão desastrosas.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2243140299255527501?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2243140299255527501/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-de-credito-no-brasil.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2243140299255527501'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2243140299255527501'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-de-credito-no-brasil.html' title='Mercado de Crédito no Brasil'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kaRduqBoETE/TqiAxuGKIkI/AAAAAAAAAMo/N9-BgxeHjkI/s72-c/cheque_especial.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-9129388600520881756</id><published>2011-10-26T12:58:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-26T12:58:55.536+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado Financeiro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>It’s All Connected: An Overview of the Euro Crisis</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/10/23/sunday-review/an-overview-of-the-euro-crisis.html?emc=eta1"&gt;Infográfico interessante sobre a crise nos países da Zona do Euro.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-9129388600520881756?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/9129388600520881756/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/its-all-connected-overview-of-euro.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9129388600520881756'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9129388600520881756'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/its-all-connected-overview-of-euro.html' title='It’s All Connected: An Overview of the Euro Crisis'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2495924926940909416</id><published>2011-10-15T14:21:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-15T15:34:16.645+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Contágio'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Muito mais que uma crise de dívida</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A crise mundial continua gerando um ambiente de incerteza e vem trazendo inquietação aos investidores. A cada semana surge a expectativa de que algum programa para gestão dos problemas de dívida de algumas economias poderá definitivamente trazer calma aos mercados. O fundo de estabilização europeu aparece como possível mecanismo, mas sempre há algum impasse. Seja pelo volume disponível, seja por algum país contrário à injeção de recursos no mesmo. Resultado? Volatilidade.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Um dos grandes problemas é que a discussão vem sendo pautada apenas pela gestão do contágio de um possível &lt;i&gt;default &lt;/i&gt;grego&amp;nbsp;nas demais economias européias. Sim, essa gestão é importante, principalmente no cuidado com os sistemas financeiros mais expostos (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/bancos-paises-e-ratings.html"&gt;Bancos, países e ratings&lt;/a&gt;). Mas a gestão do contágio não resolve os problemas das economias engajadas em um projeto altamente questionável. Sim, estou falando do euro.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O grande problema das economias não emergiu (em geral) de uma situação fiscal muito descontrolada. No gráfico abaixo pode-se constatar que os países periféricos da Zona do Euro incorriam em superávits primários até 2007, com exceção da Grécia e de alguns anos para Portugal. Esses dois países pelo que tenho analisado já apresentavam diversos indicadores fragilizados nesse período, mas irei abordar os dois especificamente em um outro post.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-d_hIHGgBdTc/TpmDV13oEmI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/ssC94ik-ItM/s1600/resultadogoverno.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="180" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-d_hIHGgBdTc/TpmDV13oEmI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/ssC94ik-ItM/s320/resultadogoverno.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;A trajetória do endividamento pré-crise financeira de 2008 também não mostrava grandes problemas (salvo em Portugal). Colocando a razão dívida/PIB em 2000 como base 100, o gráfico abaixo mostra a evolução:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jQIKSdXy_6M/TpmD_6RY8wI/AAAAAAAAAMY/0jg4AqRn-qc/s1600/grossdebt.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="180" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jQIKSdXy_6M/TpmD_6RY8wI/AAAAAAAAAMY/0jg4AqRn-qc/s320/grossdebt.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Agora, a competitividade dos países já não apresentava um comportamento tão favorável. As diferenças nos ciclos de negócio entre as economias mais desenvolvidas do bloco e as economias periféricas gerava uma situação de desbalanceamento. Ao analisar o resultado da conta corrente em relação ao PIB antes da crise de 2008, a diferença é gritante:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-3xRzyDwNRLo/TpmFaVgDE8I/AAAAAAAAAMg/N9Dk7ktPXi4/s1600/CA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="180" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-3xRzyDwNRLo/TpmFaVgDE8I/AAAAAAAAAMg/N9Dk7ktPXi4/s320/CA.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Essa situação poderia ser corrigida através de alterações na taxa de câmbio. Todavia, como a taxa de câmbio nominal é fixa entre os países que adotaram o euro, a correção pode vir através dos preços, mas esse ajuste é mais demorado (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/da-para-aguentar-ate-o-medio-prazo.html"&gt;Dá para agüentar até o médio prazo?&lt;/a&gt;).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Claro que pode-se argumentar que os déficits em conta corrente dos países nesse período foram sempre financiados (estou preparando um texto sobre um possível motivo para isso, e minha visão de médio prazo é de que a situação não será tão boa em Portugal), seja por uma decisão intertemporal de outros países (e.g. asiáticos) em pouparem mais no presente, ou pela suposta atratividade de pertencer à Zona do Euro.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O fato é que o diferencial de competitividade vem se mostrando um grande problema. A correção deve demorar (a não ser que os países deixem o euro), o que pode trazer muita perda de bem-estar social, sem falar na incerteza e na volatilidade.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2495924926940909416?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2495924926940909416/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/muito-mais-do-que-uma-crise-de-divida.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2495924926940909416'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2495924926940909416'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/muito-mais-do-que-uma-crise-de-divida.html' title='Muito mais que uma crise de dívida'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-d_hIHGgBdTc/TpmDV13oEmI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/ssC94ik-ItM/s72-c/resultadogoverno.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5560713458978051950</id><published>2011-10-11T23:59:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-12T00:04:33.972+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Modelos Econômicos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado Imobiliário'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bolha de Ativos'/><title type='text'>Mercado imobiliário brasileiro: análise sob a ótica de asset pricing</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O comportamento do mercado imobiliário brasileiro vem me preocupando há algum tempo. Entre as diversas maneiras de abordar a situação, resolvi fazer um exercício para comparar fundamentos com a realidade. Sendo assim, a evolução dos preços das residências - cuja referência neste texto é o índice &lt;a href="http://www.fipe.org.br/web/index.asp"&gt;fipezap&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;- foi analisada sob a ótica de um modelo simples de asset pricing (desenvolvido &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/um-modelo-simples-de-asset-pricing.html"&gt;neste&lt;/a&gt; post). O modelo originalmente avalia o comportamento do preço de uma ação com base em algumas premissas. O preço de um imóvel apresenta características semelhantes. Grosseiramente falando, tanto no caso das ações como nos imóveis, está presente o ganho de capital. Ao passo que os acionistas recebem dividendos e os proprietários, aluguel.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i) Fatos estilizados&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para caracterizar a situação, alguns gráficos. O primeiro mostra a evolução do índice para São Paulo (optei por não colocar o índice geral por dois motivos 1) a série é curta; 2) para minimizar distorções da agregação) de janeiro de 2008 a setembro de 2011, cuja base 100 é o mês de agosto de 2010:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YF0zaN5ZboQ/TpS_YQ7t39I/AAAAAAAAALw/Jj265v0zKPA/s1600/fipezapsaopaulo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="192" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YF0zaN5ZboQ/TpS_YQ7t39I/AAAAAAAAALw/Jj265v0zKPA/s320/fipezapsaopaulo.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Utilizando o IPCA para deflacionar (sim, eu sei, eu deveria pegar um índice regional, mas apenas para facilitar e a conclusão não se altera), o ganho real entre agosto de 2010 e agosto de 2011 foi de 19,2%.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O próximo gráfico mostra a evolução do índice no Rio de Janeiro:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ae3t7oh6cj0/TpS_Z7mJfEI/AAAAAAAAAL4/V6kCXKR5lUU/s1600/fipezapriodejaneiro.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="192" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ae3t7oh6cj0/TpS_Z7mJfEI/AAAAAAAAAL4/V6kCXKR5lUU/s320/fipezapriodejaneiro.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Sob a mesma métrica, o ganho real entre agosto de 2010 e agosto de 2011 foi de 31,7%.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii) Avaliando os fundamentos&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Com base no &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/um-modelo-simples-de-asset-pricing.html"&gt;modelo&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;de asset pricing supracitado, a evolução do índice deveria ter sido um pouco mais suave, conforme pode ser verificado no gráfico abaixo:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-H4bJDI7h06Q/TpTCijAywYI/AAAAAAAAAMI/gyWtFOUIvEA/s1600/modelovsreal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="181" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-H4bJDI7h06Q/TpTCijAywYI/AAAAAAAAAMI/gyWtFOUIvEA/s320/modelovsreal.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ressalvas:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- algumas premissas do modelo já são questionáveis para ações (fiz essa ressalva no texto que trato do sobre o modelo), e ficam ainda mais no caso de imóveis. Todavia, a base do modelo é o "valor justo", calculado pelo valor presente dos fluxos de caixa futuros (utilizei a taxa de aluguel de SELIC + 3% ao ano, contudo, fiz diversas simulações aumentando o juro fixo e o resultado é muito semelhante), um conceito que não é perfeito, mas reflete de alguma forma uma precificação calcada em fundamentos.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- o mercado de crédito imobiliário é extremamente insipiente no Brasil, e a sua evolução pode afetar diretamente os preços dos imóveis tanto do lado da oferta quanto do lado da demanda, assim como as alterações estruturais de outras variáveis macroeconômicas e das mudanças demográficas que país vem registrando, gerando diferenças entre o real e o estimado pelo modelo, que dificilmente captaria esses fatores.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Sendo assim, o "descolamento" pode ser explicado por imperfeições no modelo.&amp;nbsp;Ou será que o comportamento dos preços é que segue uma dinâmica afastada dos fundamentos?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5560713458978051950?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5560713458978051950/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-imobiliario-brasileiro-analise.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5560713458978051950'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5560713458978051950'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/mercado-imobiliario-brasileiro-analise.html' title='Mercado imobiliário brasileiro: análise sob a ótica de asset pricing'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YF0zaN5ZboQ/TpS_YQ7t39I/AAAAAAAAALw/Jj265v0zKPA/s72-c/fipezapsaopaulo.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-9194012127128056577</id><published>2011-10-10T21:54:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-10T21:54:26.169+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Academia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Análise Empírica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Nobel Prize'/><title type='text'>And the 2011 Nobel Prize in Economics goes to...</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/"&gt;Thomas J. Sargent e Christopher A. Sims&lt;/a&gt;!&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-9194012127128056577?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/9194012127128056577/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/and-2011-nobel-prize-in-economics-goes.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9194012127128056577'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/9194012127128056577'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/and-2011-nobel-prize-in-economics-goes.html' title='And the 2011 Nobel Prize in Economics goes to...'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-626980236597806673</id><published>2011-10-07T22:54:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-10-07T22:54:04.061+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado Financeiro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bancos'/><title type='text'>Bancos, países e ratings</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O noticiário econômico tem sido populado por notícias sobre corte de &lt;i&gt;ratings&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;dos títulos da dívida soberana de países com problemas e dos títulos de instituições financeiras. Esse movimento tem trazido nervosismo aos mercados e ampliado o ambiente de incerteza.&amp;nbsp;A crise em que se encontram alguns países da Zona do Euro pode ser potencializada pelos danos ao sistema financeiro europeu - com contágio para o mundo todo.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Os bancos possuem em suas carteiras títulos de dívida de diversos países. Alguns estão mais expostos à dívida das nações cujo risco de &lt;i&gt;default&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;está mais alto. Essa exposição é preocupante. Em caso de &lt;i&gt;default&lt;/i&gt;, os bancos perderiam grande parte do valor de seus ativos mantendo o nível dos seus passivos. Esse desbalanceamento poderia ser danoso caso as instituições financeiras não consigam se capitalizar. As instituições financeiras poderiam ter problemas em honrar compromissos de curto prazo.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Esse cenário poderia ser catastrófico, se não fosse possivelmente precedido por cenário pior. Emergindo o risco do não cumprimento das suas obrigações por parte dos bancos, os agentes não ficariam esperando até que isso ocorresse. Uma possível "corrida aos bancos" poderia acontecer, gerando um problema de &lt;i&gt;self-fulfilling crisis&lt;/i&gt;, ou seja, a expectativa de um cenário ruim faria com que os agentes tomassem certas decisões (e.g. saques) e estas decisões causariam os problemas bancários.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Os &lt;i&gt;policymakers&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;sabem disso. Essa é a grande dificuldade da gestão da crise no momento. É quase consensual que a Grécia entrará em&lt;i&gt;&amp;nbsp;default&lt;/i&gt;, mas a questão está em como administrar os bancos que estão expostos à dívida grega. E o possível contágio nas taxas de juros de outras economias periféricas pode gerar uma situação de outros &lt;i&gt;defaults&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;e um problema semelhante de exposição.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Solução?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Difícil afirmar que exista uma solução simples. Mas um dos fundamentos que vem sendo discutido é o do papel do &lt;i&gt;lender of last resort&lt;/i&gt;, garantindo os empréstimos dos bancos mais sensíveis aos problemas atuais. A simples existência de uma ajuda "ilimitada" crível poderia barrar uma "corrida bancária", sem a necessidade de efetivamente ser injetada uma grande quantia nos bancos. É claro que surge um problema de &lt;i&gt;moral hazard. &lt;/i&gt;Os banqueiros sabendo que no final podem ser resgatados poderiam continuar financiando o consumo de governos altamente endividados. Mas a questão é: o risco moral surge para os próximos períodos, mas será que as economias sobrevivem bem sem correr esse risco?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;E quem poderia fazer esse papel?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;É discutível. Mas a chance é muito grande de que o Banco Central Europeu o faça (o fundo de estabilização europeu provavelmente não daria conta caso o problema caminhe para sistemas financeiros mais robustos do que o grego). Os alemães podem demonstrar alguma resistência, contudo, como os mesmos estão tão engajados em defender a moeda única, em algum momento terão que confrontar uma decisão mais difícil como essa.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-626980236597806673?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/626980236597806673/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/bancos-paises-e-ratings.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/626980236597806673'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/626980236597806673'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/10/bancos-paises-e-ratings.html' title='Bancos, países e ratings'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5860861114703748511</id><published>2011-09-29T21:12:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T21:15:29.798+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Chucknomics</title><content type='html'>Dica do &lt;a href="http://lmonasterio.blogspot.com/"&gt;Leonardo Monasterio&lt;/a&gt;:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://gustibusgustibus.wordpress.com/2011/09/28/chucknomics/"&gt;Chucknomics&lt;/a&gt;...genial!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;E a versão para o &lt;a href="http://drunkeynesian.blogspot.com/2007/10/chuck-norris-aplicado-ao-mercado.html"&gt;mercado financeiro do Drunkeynesian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5860861114703748511?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5860861114703748511/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/chucknomics.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5860861114703748511'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5860861114703748511'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/chucknomics.html' title='Chucknomics'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2973262344168312381</id><published>2011-09-24T21:37:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-24T22:07:27.353+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Zona do Euro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Dá para agüentar até o médio prazo?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O alto endividamento dos países periféricos da Zona do Euro e a recessão em que se encontram estão entre os fatores que têm trazido instabilidade aos mercados nas últimas semanas. Embora sejam questões importantes e devam ser tratadas (recessão no curto prazo, endividamento no médio/longo prazo), existe um tema que está na raiz dos problemas das nações que decidiram por abdicar da autonomia política monetária: diferenças de produtividade entre os países.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Como ressaltei no texto &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/mais-sobre-portugal-diferencas-nos.html"&gt;Mais sobre Portugal: Diferenças nos ciclos de negócio&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(embora eu tenha me referido ao PIB &lt;i&gt;per capita&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;como uma medida de produtividade no texto, ele capta muito mais do que isso, mas vale o exercício;&amp;nbsp;a análise que vale para Portugal se estende aos demais países periféricos), os países que compõe a suposta área monetária ótima possuem ciclos de negócio (muito?) diferentes, e choques positivos de produtividade em países como a Alemanha ou a França geram externalidades negativas em países que não conseguem acompanhar o ritmo.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para compensar o diferencial de produtividade uma das saídas seria a desvalorização da taxa de câmbio, aumentando a competitividade dos produtos nacionais, incentivando as exportações, aumentando a renda e estimulando o consumo e o investimento. Mas a taxa de câmbio é fixa.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ganhos advindos de inovações tecnológicas também poderiam reduzir custos e aumentar a competitividade dos produtos dos países periféricos, mas no curto prazo essas mudanças tecnológicas dificilmente surgem e/ou são implementadas (ainda mais com uma menor propensão dos agentes a investir em meio à recessão e ao prognóstico no mínimo incerto das economias).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A solução de médio prazo poderia vir do comportamento dos preços domésticos. Caso a situação econômica se mantenha como está ou piore, a oferta agregada poderia ser impactada. As empresas começariam a rever os &lt;i&gt;mark ups&lt;/i&gt;, os trabalhadores incorporariam um nível de preços&amp;nbsp;cada vez&amp;nbsp;menor na expectativa salarial, e assim os preços internos &lt;b&gt;poderiam &lt;u&gt;eventualmente&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt; ceder até um ponto em que se tornassem competitivos internacionalmente. Nesse momento, as exportações ganham força e impulsionam o produto da economia, atingindo um novo equilíbrio com um PIB maior, conforme mostra o gráfico abaixo:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HxJRjzdHtVE/Tn47bE2HWGI/AAAAAAAAALs/L_o2G6R-3lU/s1600/as-ad+aggregate+supply+moving.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="186" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HxJRjzdHtVE/Tn47bE2HWGI/AAAAAAAAALs/L_o2G6R-3lU/s320/as-ad+aggregate+supply+moving.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;(fonte do gráfico: &lt;a href="http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~mchinn/e302_lecture26_s11.pdf"&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;- slide 6; indicação do &lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/24/bully-for-the-baltics/"&gt;Paul Krugman&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O problema é que esse novo equilíbrio só ocorre no médio prazo, e no meio do caminho as economias periféricas teriam que experimentar uma recessão forte com deflação significante (além de não corrigir o problema que é o diferencial estrutural de produtividade, apenas uma solução que dura enquanto durar a deflação relativa).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Nessas condições, dá para esperar até o médio prazo?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2973262344168312381?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2973262344168312381/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/da-para-aguentar-ate-o-medio-prazo.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2973262344168312381'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2973262344168312381'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/da-para-aguentar-ate-o-medio-prazo.html' title='Dá para agüentar até o médio prazo?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HxJRjzdHtVE/Tn47bE2HWGI/AAAAAAAAALs/L_o2G6R-3lU/s72-c/as-ad+aggregate+supply+moving.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6308261081591905285</id><published>2011-09-22T00:10:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-22T12:23:18.471+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Federal Reserve'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><title type='text'>Uma investida monetária</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A tão aguardada reunião do &lt;i&gt;Fed &lt;/i&gt;(&lt;i&gt;Federal Reserve&lt;/i&gt;, o Banco Central dos EUA) já aconteceu e o anuncio de uma nova medida ocorreu: um plano que envolve USD 400 bilhões para tentar impactar a) a estrutura temporal das taxas de juros norte-americanas e b) investimento e consumo. Vamos entender.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O &lt;i&gt;Fed&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;irá adquirir USD 400 bilhões em títulos de maturidade mais longa, de seis a trinta anos. Ao fazer isso, o preço dos títulos sobe, diminuindo as taxas de juros dos mesmos (apenas para ilustrar, imagine que um título pague USD 1.000,00 no vencimento, se hoje está cotado a USD 950,00 a taxa de juros é de 5,26%; se o valor do título sobe para, digamos, USD 970,00 a taxa de juros cai para 3,1%). Ao mesmo tempo, a entidade irá lançar USD 400 bilhões no mercado títulos de maturidade mais curta, para "neutralizar" (não é tão simples assim, mas esse não é o ponto da análise) essa emissão, aumentando as taxas de juros mais curtas que já estão bem baixas em função da taxa de juros básica norte-america estar muito próxima a zero (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/"&gt;Crise mundial: austeridade só vai piorar a situação&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;E qual o intuito desse programa?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O Banco Central dos EUA sabe que os consumidores e as empresas não tomam recursos nem baseiam (diretamente) as suas decisões de poupança em função das taxas de juros de política econômica, mas levam em conta às taxas de juros que os bancos disponibilizam. Essas taxas emergem de mercado de juros e balizam o valor do crédito. Assim, o objetivo é influenciar o mercado de juros na direção de "achatar a curva", deixando as taxas longas menores, incentivando o crédito (por exemplo as hipotecas que estavam com taxas altas, impactando negativamente no mercado imobiliário e aumentando as dificuldades do país em se recuperar), para incentivar o investimento e o consumo.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A minha leitura é que o efeito será marginal se não for auxiliado com um estímulo fiscal forte o suficiente para impulsionar a demanda agregada no curto prazo (aí a combinação pode ser interessante: estímulo fiscal, gerando maior demanda agregada, aumentando a renda, estimulando consumo e investimentos, os quais teriam uma "ajuda extra" do mercado de crédito).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Possivelmente essa medida tem mais um caráter de sinalização ao mercado de que o &lt;i&gt;Fed &lt;/i&gt;está tentando com todas as suas ferramentas auxiliar a recuperação da economia, do que propriamente uma solução para todos os problemas na terra do Tio Sam. A tentativa é válida e na direção é correta, mas será suficiente?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6308261081591905285?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6308261081591905285/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/uma-investida-monetaria.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6308261081591905285'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6308261081591905285'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/uma-investida-monetaria.html' title='Uma investida monetária'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2325061749534006153</id><published>2011-09-18T20:06:00.003+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-18T20:14:38.727+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Econômica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Crise mundial: austeridade só vai piorar a situação</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A crise financeira de 2008 assolou o mundo com proporções não vistas desde a Grande Depressão da década de 30. Sabe-se que após crises financeiras emergem crises de dívida, pois muitas vezes países com problemas macroeconômicos tiveram que instaurar estímulos fiscais de curto prazo para suprir a insuficiência da demanda agregada, aumentando o nível de endividamento (para uma contextualização rápida sobre recessões e sobre a crise de 2008 eu recomendo a minha dissertação de mestrado, no link &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/p/autor.html"&gt;Publicações&lt;/a&gt; deste blog).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em geral uma típica recessão dura cerca de quatro trimestres, mas não estamos em uma recessão típica. A crise de 2008 teve diversos agravantes para torná-la tão impactante (e.g. queda nos preços de residências; contração no mercado de crédito; queda nos preços de ativos em bolsa). Para piorar a situação, a recuperação nas economias desenvolvidas não ocorreu e na Europa emergem problemas em relação ao nível do endividamento das nações. Nos EUA, a questão paira sobre a possibilidade do &lt;i&gt;double dip&lt;/i&gt;. Além da desaceleração do crescimento chinês em função da inflação no país.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Neste contexto de pessimismo internacional os &lt;i&gt;policymakers&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;europeus decidem instaurar programas de austeridade fiscal, numa espécie de aposta "a la" &lt;a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equival%C3%AAncia_ricardiana"&gt;equivalência ricardiana&lt;/a&gt;, na qual a confiança dos agentes seria restaurada pela maior responsabilidade fiscal, pois uma contenção de gastos no presente resultaria em diminuição de tributos no futuro, incentivando o consumo e o investimento, recuperando a economia. Será?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Analisemos alguns dados dos EUA. O país também teve a sustentabilidade da dívida questionada, teve a sua nota de crédito rebaixada do nível máximo pela primeira vez na história; não satisfeitos, os americanos ainda propõe através de seu presidente &lt;a href="http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111903366504576490604262833480.html"&gt;um plano de estímulos fiscais&lt;/a&gt;. Sob a lógica daqueles que defendem a austeridade nos países europeus, os EUA estariam mais arriscados, correto (menor &lt;i&gt;rating&lt;/i&gt;, dívida crescente e mais gastos do governo)? Logo, as taxas de juros pagas pelo governo dos EUA deveriam ter explodido em função da maior percepção de risco:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BDbqtZet-U4/TnY3x0agosI/AAAAAAAAALY/PheIDZM3DBY/s1600/tips.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="171" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BDbqtZet-U4/TnY3x0agosI/AAAAAAAAALY/PheIDZM3DBY/s320/tips.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Não explodiram.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ao contrário, vêm caindo e já atingem níveis negativos (o gráfico mostra a remuneração real dos títulos que são corrigidos pela inflação). Qual a lógica? Voltemos às aulas de macroeconomia I da graduação, com o bom e velho IS-LM¹:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-iFnq0IKAp6Q/TnY6d_cC39I/AAAAAAAAALc/e1pDNOx0u7I/s1600/choque+juros+negativos.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="293" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-iFnq0IKAp6Q/TnY6d_cC39I/AAAAAAAAALc/e1pDNOx0u7I/s320/choque+juros+negativos.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;Nota: para os que não estão familiarizados com o arcabouço IS-LM, a curva IS representa os diversos equilíbrios no mercado de bens e serviços; a curva LM representa os diversos equilíbrios no mercado monetário; Y* é o produto de equilíbrio; r* a taxa de juros real de equilíbrio.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;¹&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;Explicação proposta pelo Paul Krugman.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O choque na demanda agregada resultaria em um novo equilíbrio com taxas de juros reais negativas, pois as taxas de juros nominais já se encontram muito próximas à zero:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-F2wgu7VSPEM/TnY7C6YaL6I/AAAAAAAAALg/EUJqzu8FgBs/s1600/fed+funds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="173" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-F2wgu7VSPEM/TnY7C6YaL6I/AAAAAAAAALg/EUJqzu8FgBs/s320/fed+funds.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Como alguns dos fundamentos da demanda agregada se mostram extremamente debilitados, como a taxa de desemprego...&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-rezCcB--RV0/TnY7WlZsh5I/AAAAAAAAALk/iOt-KB4fn0o/s1600/unemployement.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="178" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-rezCcB--RV0/TnY7WlZsh5I/AAAAAAAAALk/iOt-KB4fn0o/s320/unemployement.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;...a preocupação do mercado se volta para a recuperação da economia:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjJANUx6-bM/TnY7vSmiSRI/AAAAAAAAALo/t1tEFa7cT14/s1600/potential+gdp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="179" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PjJANUx6-bM/TnY7vSmiSRI/AAAAAAAAALo/t1tEFa7cT14/s320/potential+gdp.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;(PIB real potencial em azul, PIB real observado em vermelho)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O mercado se mostra mais preocupado com a recessão do país do que com o risco de &lt;i&gt;default&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;do mesmo. Claro que a dívida deve ser reestruturada, mas no curto prazo a economia deve ser estimulada e quando a recuperação ocorrer de fato, deve sim ocorrer a reestruturação.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Mas, se esta lógica de taxas de juros vale para as economias européias, o que deve ter acontecido então?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/quote?ticker=.IRGERSP:IND"&gt;Vejam o &lt;i&gt;spread&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;entre os títulos da Irlanda e da Alemanha&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(sugiro os gráficos com a visão dos últimos três ou cinco anos para melhor compreensão das magnitudes). Mesmo com os programas de austeridade, as taxas de juros estão aumentando, pois a contração nos gastos do governo resultará em maior queda na economia, dificultando ainda mais o pagamento das dívidas (lembrando que os países não possuem o benefício da senhoriagem como os EUA, que podem em último caso emitir moeda para pagar as contas).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Mas será que ninguém nunca estudou os efeitos de curto e longo prazo da austeridade na economia?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/Ball.htm"&gt;Sim&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ressalva: não estou dizendo aqui que concordo com todas as ações de política econômica que vêm sendo instauradas nos EUA. Por vezes já critiquei o que foi feito (e.g. &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/11/caindo-na-armadilha.html"&gt;Caindo na Armadilha&lt;/a&gt;). Apenas utilizo os dados do país para contextualização. E mesmo que o plano do Obama não dê certo, pelo menos é uma tentativa na direção correta.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2325061749534006153?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2325061749534006153/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/crise-mundial-austeridade-so-vai-piorar.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2325061749534006153'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2325061749534006153'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/crise-mundial-austeridade-so-vai-piorar.html' title='Crise mundial: austeridade só vai piorar a situação'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BDbqtZet-U4/TnY3x0agosI/AAAAAAAAALY/PheIDZM3DBY/s72-c/tips.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2266338343686011061</id><published>2011-09-14T23:56:00.004+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-15T21:50:47.827+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Modelos Econômicos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado Financeiro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado de Ações'/><title type='text'>Um modelo simples de asset pricing</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Este post foi desenvolvido em duas partes. A primeira apresenta o modelo qualitativamente, expõe algumas premissas, mostra e analisa os resultados. Na segunda parte descrevo o modelo para os mais interessados em nas equações (não me prendi nos passos intermediários da resolução, caso haja interesse entre em contato).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Parte 1:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Fundamentalmente, a idéia deste texto é averiguar se o comportamento do valor de mercado das empresas da Bovespa segue um movimento semelhante ao descrito por um modelo simples de &lt;i&gt;asset pricing. &lt;/i&gt;Embora algumas premissas sejam altamente questionáveis, a idéia é apenas avaliar o comportamento do preço estimado e do preço real, e averiguar a compatibilidade de ambos.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Assuma a existência de apenas dois ativos para alocação de recursos&amp;nbsp;(a decisão do quanto destinar ao consumo e quanto à poupança para alocar entre os ativos é considerada como dada e está fora do escopo do modelo), ações e títulos do governo, e que todos os agentes possuem conhecimento das formas de precificação de ambos. As ações geram ao investidor dividendos fixos e ganho/perda de capital. Os títulos pagam uma taxa de juros fixa. Assume-se que os agentes sejam racionais (eu sei, eu sei...), neutros ao risco&amp;nbsp;(essa hipótese não é tão heróica quando se pensa em frações do capital de uma empresa, e não a companhia como um todo), e que em equilíbrio os preços dos dois ativos se igualam. O tempo é uma variável discreta, no caso a precificação foi feita de ano em ano. Nesse contexto, a evolução do preço das ações depende apenas da taxa de juros e dos dividendos pagos (e do tempo, claro).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Premissas da modelagem:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- A taxa de juros utilizada para precificação em cada instante foi a meta da taxa SELIC;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Dividendos constantes (11% do valor das empresas em 2000 corrigido apenas pela inflação);&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Índice de Inflação para atualização dos dividendos: IPCA (Fonte:&amp;nbsp;Banco Central do Brasil - BCB)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Valor de mercado das empresas do Ibovespa (fonte: BCB)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para entender o gráfico: quando um índice diz por exemplo 128 em jan/05 (real), significa que em relação à jan/04 o crescimento foi de 28%.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jYh2L4iglWw/TnEnIE1r2mI/AAAAAAAAALU/fnA4G2o_6PA/s1600/grafico+modelo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="182" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jYh2L4iglWw/TnEnIE1r2mI/AAAAAAAAALU/fnA4G2o_6PA/s320/grafico+modelo.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;(Para melhor visualização, clique no gráfico)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ao avaliar o comportamento do modelo no que diz respeito à direção da evolução, parece que estão alinhados. Em &lt;u&gt;todos os anos&amp;nbsp;a direção foi a mesma&lt;/u&gt; (ou seja, se o modelo dizia que o valor de mercado iria cair, o realizado foi efetivamente a queda). Claro que o valor em si não deve ser considerado, mas o interessante é a evolução conjunta. Confesso que não esperava &lt;i&gt;a priori &lt;/i&gt;que o modelo pudesse indicar uma queda no valor de mercado das ações em jan/09, mas estava enganado.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ressalva-se obviamente que todo modelo é apenas uma simplificação da realidade, e que este é apenas um exercício confrontando o referencial teórico com a realidade. Além disso, não foi testada a capacidade preditiva do modelo, pois não era o objetivo do exercício (para tal deve-se utilizar a expectativa das variáveis ). Mas que é interessante, isso é (pelo menos eu acho!).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;___________________________________________________&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Parte 2: Modelo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Dois ativos:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Títulos do governo que pagam uma taxa de juros "r"&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Ações cujo retorno ao acionista é a soma dos dividendos (valor constante) mais o ganho/perda de capital&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Agentes racionais (eu sei, eu sei...);&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Agentes neutros ao risco (essa hipótese não é tão heróica quando se pensa em frações do capital de uma empresa, e não a companhia como um todo);&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Tempo discreto (no caso, o tempo é medido de ano em ano);&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Valor dos ativos¹&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Títulos: (1+r)&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Ações: [1/(p(t)] . [d + p(t+1)]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Em equilíbrio o valor dos ativos deve ser igual:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; (1+r) = [1/(p(t)] . [d + p(t+1)]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;p(t+1) =&amp;nbsp;p(t) . (1+r) - d&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Solução da &lt;i&gt;difference equation&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;acima:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&amp;nbsp; p(t) = A . (1+r) ^t + d/r&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;r: taxa de juros&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;p(t): preço no instante t&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;p(t+1): preço no instante t+1&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;d: dividendo pago ao acionista&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A: constante da resolução da &lt;i&gt;difference equation&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;¹: &lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;Valor normalizado para um unidade monetária. Portanto, ao investir uma unidade de capital, o título vale 1 . (1+r); no caso das ações, com uma unidade de capital adquiri-se 1/p(t) frações da empresa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2266338343686011061?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2266338343686011061/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/um-modelo-simples-de-asset-pricing.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2266338343686011061'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2266338343686011061'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/um-modelo-simples-de-asset-pricing.html' title='Um modelo simples de asset pricing'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jYh2L4iglWw/TnEnIE1r2mI/AAAAAAAAALU/fnA4G2o_6PA/s72-c/grafico+modelo.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3836860461484294537</id><published>2011-09-11T00:55:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-11T00:55:11.942+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Demográfica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Previdência Social'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Ponzi'/><title type='text'>Previdência Social: um esquema Ponzi?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Inspirado pelo&lt;a href="http://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2011/09/a-platonic-dialogue-on-the-ontological-status-of-social-security.html"&gt; texto de Brad DeLong&lt;/a&gt;, vou me aventurar em uma área que não é muito "a minha praia".&amp;nbsp;De acordo com o site do Ministério da Previdência Social:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;"A Previdência Social é um seguro que garante a renda do contribuinte e de sua família, em casos de doença, acidente, gravidez, prisão, morte e velhice. Oferece vários benefícios que juntos garantem tranqüilidade quanto ao presente e em relação ao futuro assegurando um rendimento seguro. Para ter essa proteção, é necessário se inscrever e contribuir todos os meses."&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Se eu entendi direito, o contribuinte paga hoje e recebe apenas no futuro. Quando chega o momento de resgatar o que fora "investido", o rendimento auferido mais a entrada de novos contribuintes garantem que o ciclio continue.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Muito familiar a um &lt;a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquema_Ponzi"&gt;Esquema Ponzi&lt;/a&gt;, não?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Claro que não, porque o que torna insustentável um Equema Ponzi é o fato de que em algum momento, os novos entrantes não darão conta de cobrir o volume a ser destinado àqueles que vão auferir os benefícios. Na Previdência Social, temos (?) dois fatores que garantem a sustentabilidade do ciclo: crescimento e composição.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i)&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;O crescimento da população garante novos trabalhadores. Crescimento?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1DmzdbDTP0U/Tmv0WW4T_CI/AAAAAAAAALM/zMp0ade1dRk/s1600/growth.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="279" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1DmzdbDTP0U/Tmv0WW4T_CI/AAAAAAAAALM/zMp0ade1dRk/s320/growth.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Bom, contar com o crescimento não me parece uma estrutura muito conservadora. Se a taxa de crescimento da população total for menor do que a taxa de crescimento de aposentados, podemos ter um problema.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii)&lt;/b&gt; A composição da população é outro fator preponderante. Se a base da pirâmide (expressão&amp;nbsp;sugestiva) estiver "engordando", significa que uma maior quantidade de trabalhadores (atuais e futuros) pode sustentar as aposentadorias.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-pdi-HeHG5po/Tmv0aq2LcBI/AAAAAAAAALQ/Tcd4sdc1xFQ/s1600/composi%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="247" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-pdi-HeHG5po/Tmv0aq2LcBI/AAAAAAAAALQ/Tcd4sdc1xFQ/s320/composi%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/sinopse.pdf"&gt;Fonte dos gráficos&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Se a minha leitura do gráfico acima está correta, o Brasil está envelhecendo. E rápido. Como não podemos "exercer" a qualquer momento a aposentadoria, não haverá uma "corrida à previdência", mas vai ficar difícil pagar a conta no futuro (já está difícil hoje).&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3836860461484294537?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3836860461484294537/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/previdencia-social-um-esquema-ponzi.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3836860461484294537'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3836860461484294537'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/previdencia-social-um-esquema-ponzi.html' title='Previdência Social: um esquema Ponzi?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1DmzdbDTP0U/Tmv0WW4T_CI/AAAAAAAAALM/zMp0ade1dRk/s72-c/growth.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-215830488672811357</id><published>2011-09-08T20:44:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-18T20:07:57.603+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Econômica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Grécia e a Política Econômica na Zona do Euro: estática comparativa</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Há algum tempo não escrevo sobre a Grécia (alguns posts sobre o tema:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/04/grecia.html"&gt;Grécia&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/encruzilhada-macroeconomica.html"&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;e &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/07/how-did-greece-get-into-this-mess.html"&gt;"How did Greece Get into this mess?"&lt;/a&gt;) mas quem sabe o início das aulas no doutorado tenha me empolgado a elaborar um pouco a discussão sobre o que se passa com os países periféricos (embora eu tenha trabalhado mais com modelos dinâmicos ultimamente, a estática comparativa é sempre uma ferramenta útil).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;De certa forma, Este post é uma extensão do texto&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-na-europa-cada-um-por-si-todo.html"&gt;"Crise na Europa: Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona..."&lt;/a&gt;.&amp;nbsp;Comecemos :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;i)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NvRXnabwb1I/TmkQTIDbN-I/AAAAAAAAALA/9mQp2b5DY0Q/s1600/equilibrium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="255" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NvRXnabwb1I/TmkQTIDbN-I/AAAAAAAAALA/9mQp2b5DY0Q/s320/equilibrium.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"&gt;Nota: para os que não estão familiarizados com o arcabouço IS-LM, a curva IS representa os diversos equilíbrios no mercado de bens e serviços; a curva LM representa os diversos equilíbrios no mercado monetário; Y* é o produto de equilíbrio; r a taxa de juros real de equilíbrio.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Após um período de aparente proeminência econômica,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;ii)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bA8BkK7OE5M/TmkQZGOYbYI/AAAAAAAAALE/3Qr0kdykGNA/s1600/choque.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="245" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bA8BkK7OE5M/TmkQZGOYbYI/AAAAAAAAALE/3Qr0kdykGNA/s320/choque.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Qual a resposta de política econômica adequada?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- A política monetária poderia ser expansionista, se ela fosse autônoma;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- A política fiscal poderia ser anticíclica, mas o governo já incorre em altos déficits fiscais e o endividamento é preocupante;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;iii)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2Bhs1aTuK70/TmkQdza43tI/AAAAAAAAALI/eI1-VJz4XNs/s1600/ecb+raise+rates.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="254" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2Bhs1aTuK70/TmkQdza43tI/AAAAAAAAALI/eI1-VJz4XNs/s320/ecb+raise+rates.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Resultado: &lt;a href="http://economia.uol.com.br/ultimas-noticias/efe/2011/09/08/economia-grega-recua-73-no-2-trimestre-acima-do-estimado.jhtm"&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;É claro que os últimos aumentos nas taxas de juros pelo Banco Central ainda não causaram a piora vista nessa parcial do produto no ano de 2011. Mas imaginem quando os efeitos da política monetária começaram a atingir a economia grega.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-215830488672811357?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/215830488672811357/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/grecia-e-politica-economica-na-zona-do.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/215830488672811357'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/215830488672811357'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/grecia-e-politica-economica-na-zona-do.html' title='Grécia e a Política Econômica na Zona do Euro: estática comparativa'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-NvRXnabwb1I/TmkQTIDbN-I/AAAAAAAAALA/9mQp2b5DY0Q/s72-c/equilibrium.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-7875181369064973119</id><published>2011-09-02T17:21:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-09-11T10:58:03.454+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='COPOM'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><title type='text'>A (nova?) política monetária tupiniquim</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A última reunião do COPOM (Comitê de Política Monetária) teve um desfecho inesperado pela grande maioria dos economistas. A entidade decidiu pela redução de 50 bps na taxa básica de juros, a SELIC, estabelecendo a nova meta em 12% ao ano. Abaixo está o comunicado oficial:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Verdana, Arial, 'Trebuchet MS', Tahoma, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;"O&amp;nbsp;Copom decidiu reduzir a taxa Selic para 12,00% a.a., sem viés, por cinco votos a favor e dois votos pela manutenção da taxa Selic em 12,50% a.a. Reavaliando o cenário internacional, o Copom considera que houve substancial deterioração, consubstanciada, por exemplo, em reduções generalizadas e de grande magnitude nas projeções de crescimento para os principais blocos econômicos. O Comitê entende que aumentaram as chances de que restrições às quais hoje estão expostas diversas economias maduras se prolonguem por um período de tempo maior do que o antecipado. Nota ainda que, nessas economias, parece limitado o espaço para utilização de política monetária e prevalece um cenário de restrição fiscal. Dessa forma, o Comitê avalia que o cenário internacional manifesta viés desinflacionário no horizonte relevante.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;Para o Copom, a transmissão dos desenvolvimentos externos para a economia brasileira pode se materializar por intermédio de diversos canais, entre outros, redução da corrente de comércio, moderação do fluxo de investimentos, condições de crédito mais restritivas e piora no sentimento de consumidores e empresários. O Comitê entende que a complexidade que cerca o ambiente internacional contribuirá para intensificar e acelerar o processo em curso de moderação da atividade doméstica, que já se manifesta, por exemplo, no recuo das projeções para o crescimento da economia brasileira. Dessa forma, no horizonte relevante, o balanço de riscos para a inflação se torna mais favorável. A propósito, também aponta nessa direção a revisão do cenário para a política fiscal.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;Nesse contexto, o Copom entende que, ao tempestivamente mitigar os efeitos vindos de um ambiente global mais restritivo, um ajuste moderado no nível da taxa básica é consistente com o cenário de convergência da inflação para a meta em 2012.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;O Comitê irá monitorar atentamente a evolução do ambiente macroeconômico e os desdobramentos do cenário internacional para então definir os próximos passos na sua estratégia de política monetária."&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Em resumo, o Banco Central (BCB) entende que o ambiente externo é deflacionário e prejudicial à economia brasileira e tenta se antecipar aos acontecimentos instaurando estímulos monetários antes de averigüar os fatos. O BCB pode até ter sido &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/salvo-pela-crise-novamente.html"&gt;Salvo pela crise novamente&lt;/a&gt;, uma vez que a dinâmica de preços (se o cenário base para decisão do COPOM se materializar) pode ser mais favorável. Contudo, ao antecipar os acontecimentos e, principalmente, os impactos do âmbito internacional, o BCB mostra-se mais uma vez &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/banco-central-do-brasil-o-apostador.html"&gt;apostador&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Caso o prognóstico esteja correto, no qual um choque externo possa acalmar a evolução dos preços, e a polìtica fiscal realmente se torne mais austera do que no passado recente, pode ser uma boa oportunidade para mudar o patamar da taxa de juros básica estruturalmente.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Agora, em um país que tem no seu tripé macroeconômico o regime de metas de inflação (sem entrar na discussão sobre o câmbio "flutuante" e o superávit primário), não estaria o BCB preocupado mais com o crescimento, e menos com a estabilidade dos preços?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-7875181369064973119?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/7875181369064973119/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/nova-politica-monetaria-tupiniquim.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7875181369064973119'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7875181369064973119'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/09/nova-politica-monetaria-tupiniquim.html' title='A (nova?) política monetária tupiniquim'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-50724390390202629</id><published>2011-08-29T16:55:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-29T16:55:42.499+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Fiscal'/><title type='text'>A crise financeira e a política econômica: poderia ter sido diferente?</title><content type='html'>Resumo da minha dissertação de mestrado sobre a crise financeira de 2008 e a capacidade de resposta de política econômica (o texto na íntegra pode ser conferido &lt;a href="http://bibliotecadigital.fgv.br/dspace/handle/10438/8551"&gt;aqui&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #325078; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"&gt;Este trabalho tem por objetivo analisar se a capacidade de resposta de política econômica foi fator relevante para minimizar a severidade da crise financeira de 2008, no primeiro ano do episódio. A hipótese da pesquisa é que países com um maior espaço para políticas expansionistas – maiores taxas de juros maiores e melhores resultados do governo central – tenham registrado uma crise menos severa, tudo mais constante. Os resultados econométricos corroboram com a hipótese em relação à política monetária. No que diz respeito à política fiscal, o sinal dos parâmetros encontrado é oposto ao esperado, sinalizando que, possivelmente, mesmo países com bons resultados fiscais possam ter limitações a estímulos keynesianos em função da tolerância ao seu nível de endividamento. Entretanto, a interação entre o resultado do governo central e o endividamento está em linha com a hipótese da pesquisa, uma vez que uma melhor gestão tanto do fluxo fiscal, quanto do estoque da dívida no ano anterior ao evento mostrou-se relevante. A adição da variável de investment grade às especificações ressaltou uma crise mais severa nas economias desenvolvidas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-50724390390202629?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/50724390390202629/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-financeira-e-politica-economica.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/50724390390202629'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/50724390390202629'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-financeira-e-politica-economica.html' title='A crise financeira e a política econômica: poderia ter sido diferente?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1138706722716550248</id><published>2011-08-23T20:27:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-23T20:27:56.669+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflação'/><title type='text'>Salvo pela crise novamente</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A conjuntura econômica internacional apresenta alto grau de incerteza em função da problemática recuperação norte-americana, da difícil gestão da dívida dos países da Zona do Euro, da desaceleração da China e de problemas políticos e manifestações em países como a Líbia (para uma contextualização sobre os aspectos econômicos veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/conjuntura-economica-internacional-eua.html"&gt;Conjuntura Econômica Internacional: EUA, Zona do Euro, China e Brasil&lt;/a&gt;). Embora o prognóstico seja nebuloso, diversos economistas já incorporam uma desaceleração mais acentuada da economia mundial, e um ambiente menos favorável ao desempenho dos ativos financeiros. Caso o cenário pessimista seja confirmado, o Brasil será afetado de alguma maneira. Façamos um exercício sob as seguintes premissas:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;1) Recuperação mais lenta dos EUA;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;2) Desaceleração na China;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;3) Crise na Europa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Políticas Econômicas ao redor do globo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;De maneira sintética, podemos inferir que em um ambiente como o caracterizado, os EUA devem instaurar políticas expansionistas (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/crise-divida-e-recuperacao-eua.html"&gt;Crise, dívida e recuperação: EUA&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;para uma discussão mais específica), possivelmente com um viés monetário (embora alguns pesquisadores defendam um forte incentivo fiscal - sou um deles), desvalorizando sua moeda, aumentando o fluxo de capitais para as economias emergentes, e mantendo excepcionalmente baixas as taxas de juros da economia.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Na Europa a dinâmica deveria ser a mesma, embora a experiência recente mostre que nem sempre a gestão é na linha do que se espera (veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-na-europa-cada-um-por-si-todo.html"&gt;Crise na Europa: "Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona..."&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Na China já vem se instaurando uma política contracionista (comentei rapidamente sobre isso em &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/politica-monetaria-na-china-impactos-na.html"&gt;Política Monetária na China: Impactos na Bovespa?&lt;/a&gt;) e a tendência é que não haja uma reversão do movimento mesmo com queda na economia mundial, em função da demanda doméstica muito estimulada na última década.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;No Brasil&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O Brasil se encontra em uma posição privilegiada do ponto de vista de gestão macroeconômica de uma futura crise mundial. As tão criticadas taxas de juros tupiniquins fornecem uma alta capacidade de reposta de política monetária (principalmente se o lado fiscal estiver bem controlado). Atualmente, a dinâmica dos preços vem preocupando os agentes da economia (veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/revisitando-espiral-de-precos-e.html"&gt;Revisitando a Espiral de Preços e Salários&lt;/a&gt;;&amp;nbsp;talvez não preocupe a todos na verdade - veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/banco-central-do-brasil-o-apostador.html"&gt;Banco Central do Brasil, o apostador&lt;/a&gt;). A inflação acumulada nos últimos 12 meses já está acima do teto da meta estabelecido pelo Conselho Monetário Nacional, conforme o gráfico abaixo:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-lReoNtfHtXs/TlP8TmX5vmI/AAAAAAAAAK8/qG6gQJ3GVT0/s1600/ipca12m.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="189" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-lReoNtfHtXs/TlP8TmX5vmI/AAAAAAAAAK8/qG6gQJ3GVT0/s320/ipca12m.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O interessante é que, pela segunda vez, o BCB pode ser "salvo" por uma crise no que diz respeito ao cumprimento da meta. Como a meta é sobre a inflação acumulada no ano, e não sobre a dinâmica móvel dos últimos 12 meses (como deveria ser na minha modesta opinião), no final do ano a economia pode ser impactada pela crise e a inflação voltar para o intervalo tolerado pela entidade monetária.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1138706722716550248?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1138706722716550248/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/salvo-pela-crise-novamente.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1138706722716550248'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1138706722716550248'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/salvo-pela-crise-novamente.html' title='Salvo pela crise novamente'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-lReoNtfHtXs/TlP8TmX5vmI/AAAAAAAAAK8/qG6gQJ3GVT0/s72-c/ipca12m.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-7555589374519526531</id><published>2011-08-16T02:03:00.003+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-16T02:20:08.490+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Zona do Euro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='EUA'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><title type='text'>Conjuntura Econômica Internacional: EUA, Zona do Euro, China e Brasil</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Sobre a conjuntura econômica internacional:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i) EUA: Desemprego alto, recuperação tímida e falta de estímulos fiscais&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Embora o assunto já tenha sido tratado anteriormente (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/crise-divida-e-recuperacao-eua.html"&gt;Crise, dívida e recuperação: EUA&lt;/a&gt;), vale a síntese. Os EUA pós-crise financeira de 2008 sofrem de insuficiência na demanda agregada em função das altas taxas de desemprego principalmente, e encontram-se no que a teoria denomina de armadilha da liquidez, uma situação na qual, simplificadamente, ações de política monetária não conseguem estimular a economia em função de uma maior preferência pela liquidez (e das taxas de juros nominais se encontrarem próximas a zero). Nesse caso, uma política fiscal expansionista poderia impulsionar a demanda agregada no curto-prazo, recuperando o mercado de trabalho com aumento da renda, do consumo e dos investimentos, e colocando a economia novamente na trajetória de crescimento. O problema é que a) os agentes encontram-se em um processo de reversão do excesso de alavancagem que perdurou durante a &lt;a href="http://blogs.estadao.com.br/paul-krugman/2010/11/26/a-instabilidade-da-moderacao/"&gt;Grande Moderação&lt;/a&gt;, aonde tudo parecia sob controle, assim o consumo tende a cair até que um novo equilíbrio seja atingido; b) a insegurança política trazida pela difícil negociação do aumento do teto da dívida mostra a fragilidade do país em instaurar aumentos de gastos governamentais.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii) Europa: Crise de dívida e política monetária duvidosa&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;No velho continente as preocupações têm origem nas dívidas soberanas e na exposição do sistema financeiro a elas. Depois da crise de 2008, os países apresentaram alto grau de endividamento, principalmente em função da limitação do uso da política monetária (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/encruzilhada-macroeconomica.html"&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/a&gt; para uma rápida contextualização das dificuldades de política econômica dos países da Zona do Euro) para combater a crise financeira. A intolerância aos níveis de dívida alcançados começou a refletir nos aumentos na margem das taxas de juros. Dois problemas emergem: a) fica cada vez mais caro para um país se endividar, comprometendo a sustentabilidade da dívida no longo-prazo; b) os bancos que possuem os papéis desses países vêm o valor dos títulos derreter (em função da marcação a mercado), o que pode incorrer em problemas de liquidez e/ou solvência no sistema financeiro europeu. Em meio a esse cenário, aliando alta das taxas de desemprego, fraco desempenho do PIB de diversos países, o Banco Central Europeu vem aumentando as taxas de juros alegando que a inflação é uma preocupação (vide Crise na Europa: "Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona..." para uma contextualização do problema). Realmente, parece que uma política monetária contracionista é a melhor resposta para o momento.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iii) China: Inflação em alta&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Na China crise significa crescer abaixo de 10% ao ano. O problema é que o modelo de crescimento chinês vem mostrando as conseqüências das políticas adotadas. A inflação corrente está alta e as expectativas sobre a dinâmica de preços começam a preocupar o governo. Diversos aumentos na alíquota de depósitos compulsórios vêm sendo instaurados (veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/politica-monetaria-na-china-impactos-na.html"&gt;Política Monetária na China: impactos na Bovespa?&lt;/a&gt;). Um menor crescimento da demanda agregada chinesa pode acarretar em uma menor renda do país (não contração de renda, menor crescimento da renda), menores importações (mesma lógica) em um momento em que a economia mundial parece depender do gigante asiático muito mais do que no passado.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;iv) Brasil: Espaço para mudanças estruturais&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As considerações sobre as perspectivas para o país do futebol (do carnaval e da inflação) têm inspiração em uma entrevista dada ao Valor Econômico pelo economista André Lara Rezende. Diferentemente dos EUA, o Brasil não sofre de insuficiência de demanda, pelo contrário, o mercado de trabalho está aquecido, o mercado de crédito vem crescendo em um ritmo forte, a renda do trabalhador conseqüentemente tem aumentado. Caso a crise internacional seja mais recessiva do que o esperado, existem alguns espaços para mudanças importantes. Em um ambiente recessivo e de incerteza, a primeira contração será nos investimentos. Assim, o Banco Central do Brasil (BCB) terá espaço para diminuir a SELIC agressivamente. Embora eu seja defensor de aumento de gastos do governo nos EUA, o Brasil não se encontra na armadilha da liquidez, assim o BCB via política monetária pode "dar conta do recado". Além de combater a crise com politica monetária expansionista, caso o governo mantenha o lado fiscal "controlado", existe a possibilidade para redução da taxa de juros de equilíbrio do país, e possivelmente de uma taxa de câmbio menos apreciada, estimulando a economia a crescer mais.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-7555589374519526531?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/7555589374519526531/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/conjuntura-economica-internacional-eua.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7555589374519526531'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/7555589374519526531'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/conjuntura-economica-internacional-eua.html' title='Conjuntura Econômica Internacional: EUA, Zona do Euro, China e Brasil'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2447230512907765407</id><published>2011-08-11T02:45:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-11T02:45:12.983+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado de Ações'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Ibovespa'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crises'/><title type='text'>Outro Lehman Brothers? Não, pior.</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em 15 de setembro de 2008 o até então quarto maior banco de investimento norte-americano recorreu ao &lt;a href="http://www.uscourts.gov/FederalCourts/Bankruptcy/BankruptcyBasics/Chapter11.aspx"&gt;capítulo 11&lt;/a&gt; da constituição do seu país e decretou para muitos a data oficial da maior crise financeira depois da Grande Depressão da década de 30. As conseqüências são amplamente conhecidas, queda no produto mundial, nos investimentos, no comércio internacional, nos preços de residências, de ações, etc...&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Os acontecimentos dos últimos dias sobre a recuperação dos EUA e a crise de dívida na Europa têm levantado dúvidas sobre uma possível nova crise comparável à de 2008. Embora saibamos que "the stock market has forecast nine of the last five recessions" (Paul Samuelson), é sempre bom acompanhar o desempenho do mercado de ações. Para tal, fiz o seguinte exercício:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Utilizei como base 100 para avaliar o comportamento do Ibovespa na crise pós-Lehman Brothers o valor de fechamento do pregão ao evento (12/08/2008);&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Utilizei como base 100 de uma "nova crise" o dia 22/07/2011&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;E verifiquei como se comportou o mercado antes e alguns dias depois dos dias utilizados como base:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HTOQDkA4oS8/TkMyjhPaLQI/AAAAAAAAAK4/RR3_GGbnS-U/s1600/ibov.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="167" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HTOQDkA4oS8/TkMyjhPaLQI/AAAAAAAAAK4/RR3_GGbnS-U/s320/ibov.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;(para uma melhor visualização, clique no gráfico)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em termos de resultado acumulado, essa "nova crise" foi pior para o mercado de ações até o momento do que a quebra do Lehman Brothers e os eventos que seguiram. É claro que esse gráfico é apenas uma provocação, pois diversos fatores são excluídos. Mas dá para entender o clima tenso e de volatilidade que os mercados têm vivido nas últimas semanas.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MOdQw-Jd7qw/TLuVOo3hAXI/AAAAAAAAAEc/wAMIM0rcrzc/s1600/wallstreet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="318" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MOdQw-Jd7qw/TLuVOo3hAXI/AAAAAAAAAEc/wAMIM0rcrzc/s320/wallstreet.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2447230512907765407?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2447230512907765407/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/outro-lehman-brothers-nao-pior.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2447230512907765407'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2447230512907765407'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/outro-lehman-brothers-nao-pior.html' title='Outro Lehman Brothers? Não, pior.'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HTOQDkA4oS8/TkMyjhPaLQI/AAAAAAAAAK4/RR3_GGbnS-U/s72-c/ibov.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1376233562741661581</id><published>2011-08-08T19:41:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-08T19:41:31.822+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado de Ações'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Capital Estrangeiro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bolsa de Valores'/><title type='text'>A bolsa caiu. Por quê?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O rebaixamento do &lt;i&gt;rating&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;da dívida dos EUA de AAA para AA+, aliado à crise na Zona do Euro deve trazer grande volatilidade às bolsas ao redor do mundo, especialmente no Brasil.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;O que move o preço de uma ação?&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Essa parece ser uma pergunta cuja resposta é extremamente complexa. Não é. Apenas três fatores são responsáveis pelos movimentos nos preços das ações: expectativa de lucro, necessidade de liquidez, e aversão ao risco.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fundamentos&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Parte do comportamento dos preços das ações (principalmente no médio/longo-prazo) se dá em função das expectativas de lucros das empresas. Em geral a avaliação de uma ação é feita com a projeção dos fluxos de caixa futuro, trazendo-os a valor presente pelo seu custo médio ponderado de capital (CMPC ou WACC, em inglês). Portanto, uma queda nas expectativas de lucro (e.g. uma empresa exportadora cujo principal mercado apresenta queda na renda agregada, diminuindo as importações; mudanças na legislação; aumento da concorrência) pode, tudo mais constante, gerar uma queda no valor das ações.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Necessidade de liquidez&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Embora a globalização do capital possa ter sido benéfica, o fato de investidores direcionarem seus recursos para diferentes mercados ao mesmo tempo faz com que a gestão desse dinheiro impacte o comportamento dos ativos no mundo todo. Grande parte do volume operado na Bovespa é proveniente do capital estrangeiro. Em uma situação na qual o investidor internacional necessita de recursos para cobrir perdas nas bolsas das economias desenvolvidas, ele vende seus ativos nos mercados emergentes, gerando uma pressão baixista no mercado.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Aversão ao risco&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Uma terceira hipótese é a aversão ao risco. Desconsiderando se esta é fundamentada ou não, se o investidor (estrangeiro ou nacional, não faz diferença - até porque o comportamento deve ser semelhante) quer "fugir" da renda variável, ele vende suas posições e aloca seus recursos na renda fixa (ou às vezes foge das ações e vai para o ouro, um "porto seguro").&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Qual a situação?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O que vimos na semana passada, o que está sendo registrado hoje na Bovespa e o que deve acontecer no curto prazo é uma combinação não muito favorável das três situações. A aversão ao risco em decorrência a) da crise da dívida nos países europeus e b) do rebaixamento dos EUA faz com que investidores minimizem suas posições nas bolsas (principalmente em países emergentes).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Esse movimento faz com que os principais índices caiam (essa queda é ampliada pelos fundos que utilizam robôs, pois se um ativo/índice atingir certo nível de queda uma ordem de &lt;i&gt;stop loss&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;é disparada e aumenta a pressão por parte do lado vendedor).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Com a queda os investidores necessitam de recursos e vão aos mercados emergentes (a bolsa brasileira está entre as mais líquidas) vender seus ativos (é claro que o movimento é antecipado e mesmo investidores que não precisam de recursos realizam as vendas, pressionando os papéis). &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Se essa situação se mantém, a perda de riqueza aliada à contração nos investimentos e no consumo em função do ambiente de incerteza impacta os fundamentos dos preços das ações e tornam estruturais as quedas que outrora eram circunstanciais.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1376233562741661581?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1376233562741661581/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/bolsa-caiu-por-que.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1376233562741661581'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1376233562741661581'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/bolsa-caiu-por-que.html' title='A bolsa caiu. Por quê?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-8670962610532680960</id><published>2011-08-08T18:37:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-08T18:42:07.362+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Zona do Euro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Zona do Euro?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://thisisindexed.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/card2952.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="191" src="http://thisisindexed.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/card2952.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;...or monetary unions without enough economic fundamentals.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Imagem de um &lt;a href="http://thisisindexed.com/"&gt;site&lt;/a&gt; curioso que venho acompanhando depois da dica do &lt;a href="http://www.cristianomcosta.com/"&gt;Cristiano M. Costa&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-8670962610532680960?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/8670962610532680960/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/europaeuajapao.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8670962610532680960'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8670962610532680960'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/europaeuajapao.html' title='Zona do Euro?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-8414937674069761883</id><published>2011-08-04T18:15:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-04T18:33:40.637+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Zona do Euro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Banco Central'/><title type='text'>Crise na Europa: "Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona..."</title><content type='html'>"Alô, alô, marciano&lt;br /&gt;A crise tá virando zona&lt;br /&gt;Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona..."&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;(Rita Lee)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Um resumo sobre a minha visão dos acontecimentos no velho continente (e como os &lt;i&gt;policymakers&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;estão lidando com isso):&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;Como chegaram lá?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para entender como os países chegaram até o ponto em que estão leiam : &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/encruzilhada-macroeconomica.html"&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/a&gt;;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/seria-zona-do-euro-um-equilibrio.html"&gt;Seria a Zona do Euro um equilíbrio Pooling?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(este texto em especial, pois é base para análise a ser desenvolvida a seguir); &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/problemas-em-portugal.html"&gt;Problemas em Portugal&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/mais-sobre-portugal-diferencas-nos.html"&gt;Mais sobre Portugal: Diferenças nos ciclos de negócio&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(este texto ressalta uma das bases para argumentar que a Zona do Euro não configura uma Área Monetária Ótima); &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/01/e-o-euro.html"&gt;E o Euro?&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/06/euro-problems-deficits-publicos.html"&gt;Euro Problems: Déficits Públicos&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em síntese, após a crise financeira de 2008 países que já vinham registrando desaceleração na economia, perda de produtividade relativa, aumento da dívida e dos déficits públicos entre outros fatores, se viram em uma situação complicada ao perceberem que não dispunham nem de política monetária (ao deixar o câmbio flutuar livremente e manterem uma taxa de câmbio fixa entre os países da zona do euro, há a perda da política monetária em função da trindade impossível), nem de política fiscal (limites às expansões fiscais seja pelo nível do endividamento, ou pelos déficits registrados pelo governo central, ou pior, as duas situações concomitantemente).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A solução arquitetada foi liderada pelos gestores dos países que se encontram em situações melhores, como Alemanha e França (embora este último não esteja lá essas coisas). Pacotes de auxílio, renegociação de dívida, introdução do setor privado no processo. Tudo parece ser interessante, contudo, o Banco Central Europeu (BCE) já iniciou o movimento de aumento de juros.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Um momento, se os juros estão subindo, a economia está aquecida, certo?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;De volta à macroeconomia I&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em termos bem simplórios, utiliza-se a política monetária de maneira contracionista (e.g. aumento de juros, aumento de depósitos compulsórios, aumento da taxa de redesconto) quando a) a economia está aquecida além do potencial (não inflacionário), o Banco Central deseja diminuir a atividade para, em um segundo momento, aliviar a dinâmica dos preços.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Gestão &lt;strike&gt;Germânica&lt;/strike&gt;&amp;nbsp;Européia&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Se os países estão registrando problemas na recuperação econômica, o que explicaria o aumento das taxas de juros por parte do BCE? A desculpa é que a inflação está preocupando. Mas como a inflação poderia estar preocupando se a atividade está fraca? Bom, a atividade na Alemanha está relativamente indo bem, e os preços estão aumentando. Mas e nos demais países?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Generalizando, essa é a situação na Zona do Euro:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eMeYO3RplE0/TjrS5KBMuNI/AAAAAAAAAKw/cjHCLXVaudM/s1600/inflation_eurozone.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="187" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eMeYO3RplE0/TjrS5KBMuNI/AAAAAAAAAKw/cjHCLXVaudM/s320/inflation_eurozone.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-IiQsgLncTKQ/TjrS5g5XgDI/AAAAAAAAAK0/I6WqLcJpVu0/s1600/unemployment_eurozone.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="176" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-IiQsgLncTKQ/TjrS5g5XgDI/AAAAAAAAAK0/I6WqLcJpVu0/s320/unemployment_eurozone.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Você aumentaria as taxas de juros?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: verdana;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11px;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-8414937674069761883?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/8414937674069761883/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-na-europa-cada-um-por-si-todo.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8414937674069761883'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8414937674069761883'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/crise-na-europa-cada-um-por-si-todo.html' title='Crise na Europa: &quot;Cada um por si, todo mundo na lona...&quot;'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eMeYO3RplE0/TjrS5KBMuNI/AAAAAAAAAKw/cjHCLXVaudM/s72-c/inflation_eurozone.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1145852171711012374</id><published>2011-08-03T22:51:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-08-03T22:51:57.496+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crédito'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Crédito, Crise e Pós-Crise: Previsão com Séries Temporais</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Uma &lt;a href="http://www.serasaexperian.com.br/revista-tecnologia-de-credito/pdf/Revista_Tecnologia_de_Crdito_72_WEB.pdf"&gt;contextualização sobre a crise financeira de 2008 e do mercado de crédito brasileiro&lt;/a&gt; escrita por mim e pelos professores Frederico Turolla e Mário Margarido (no link é o primeiro texto da revista que está em pdf, com bordas azuis). Embora tenha sido publicada no ano passado, vale a leitura.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1145852171711012374?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1145852171711012374/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/credito-crise-e-pos-crise-previsao-com.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1145852171711012374'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1145852171711012374'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/08/credito-crise-e-pos-crise-previsao-com.html' title='Crédito, Crise e Pós-Crise: Previsão com Séries Temporais'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6731604163091624415</id><published>2011-07-25T20:45:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-07-25T21:51:00.735+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Fluxo de Capitais'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Taxa de Câmbio'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='EUA'/><title type='text'>Real forte ou dólar fraco?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Hoje a taxa de câmbio BRL/USD apreciou-se além dos fatídicos R$ 1,55 - para muitos o patamar no qual o governo estaria "administrando" o câmbio. A apreciação do real e as conseqüências das políticas econômicas já vêm sendo discutidas aqui no blog há algum tempo (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/12/fluxo-de-capitais-e-historia.html"&gt;Fluxo de Capitais e História&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;para uma contextualização sobre o movimento de busca de rentabilidade além das fronteiras e as possíveis reações dos &lt;i&gt;policymakers&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;em um cenário onde o controle de capitais pudesse ser uma saída; veja &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/01/e-o-cambio-como-anda.html"&gt;E o câmbio, como anda?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;para uma análise sobre o comportamento da taxa de câmbio - BRL/USD - e as ações tomadas pelo governo; no post &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/controle-de-capitais-e-taxa-de-juros.html"&gt;Controle de Capitais e Taxas de Juros&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;discuto - e formalizo - as incidências de um controle de capitais no mercado de crédito via redução da oferta de capital e conseqüente aumento das taxas de juros; por fim no texto &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/o-trilema-teoria-epratica.html"&gt;O trilema: teoria e...prática?&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;resgato o trilema Mundelliano sobre as escolhas de política econômica que tangem a política monetária, o regime cambial e o fluxo do capital), este texto tem por objetivo resgatar a idéia dos fundamentos por trás desse movimento.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Assumindo que a determinação da taxa de câmbio tenha sido calcada em dois pilares fundamentalmente (o fluxo de capitais e a aversão ao risco), pode-se compreender que o movimento de valorização da moeda brasileira se deve a dois fatores:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Brasil: a economia vai bem, obrigado. Será?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Parte do movimento da taxa de câmbio se deve ao grande influxo de capital proveniente das economias desenvolvidas que vivem um momento de recuperação da crise financeira de 2008 e se vêm obrigados a instaurar políticas econômicas expansionistas, aumentando a liquidez e diminuindo as taxas de juros (na Europa o ECB já iniciou o discutível processo de alta dos juros, mas isso fica para uma outra oportunidade).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O capital então vai buscar sua rentabilidade nas altas taxas de juros (e como na economia tupiniquim o momento é de uma política monetária mais contracionista - vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/revisitando-espiral-de-precos-e.html"&gt;Revisitando a Espiral de Preços e Salários&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;e &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/inflacao-cada-vez-mais-perto-do-teto-da.html"&gt;Inflação cada vez mais perto da meta&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;para uma atualização sobre a dinâmica de preços recente no Brasil, embora em um ritmo questionável - vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/banco-central-do-brasil-o-apostador.html"&gt;Banco Central do Brasil, o apostador&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;para entender a esperança da entidade na convergência da inflação em 2012, as taxas de juros no país se mostram cada vez mais atrativas).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Além dos investimentos em renda fixa, a expectativa de crescimento do país&amp;nbsp;entorno de 4%&amp;nbsp;(de acordo com o&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://www4.bcb.gov.br/pec/GCI/PORT/readout/R20110722.pdf"&gt;Boletim Focus&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;- para entender um pouco sobre essa pesquisa leia&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/07/de-olho-no-focus.html"&gt;De olho no Focus&lt;/a&gt;),&amp;nbsp;mesmo em um cenário no qual o Banco Central vem aumentando as taxas de juros e com a economia se mostra muito mais sólida do que no passado (mesmo com o governo não controlando o lado fiscal - &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/02/boa-intencao-nao-basta.html"&gt;Boa intenção não basta&lt;/a&gt;), atraindo também o investimento estrangeiro direto em ações e na atividade produtiva.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Existem outros fatores que contribuem, mas na mesma direção dos apresentados acima (e.g. como termos de troca extremamene favoráveis em função da alta nos preços de &lt;i&gt;commodities&lt;/i&gt;).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;EUA: nada é tão ruim que não possa piorar&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Outra parte do movimento do dólar se deve aos próprios problemas nos EUA. No texto&amp;nbsp;&lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/crise-divida-e-recuperacao-eua.html"&gt;Crise, dívida e recuperação: EUA&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;argumentei que:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;"&gt;A recuperação (se é que pode ser chamada dessa maneira) se mostra bem lenta. Em trabalhos como de&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2008/wp08274.pdf" style="color: #5588aa; text-decoration: none;"&gt;Claessens, Kose e Terrones&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;"&gt;&amp;nbsp;podemos observar que em países desenvolvidos a taxa de desemprego pode levar mais de dez anos para voltar ao patamar pré-crise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;e que&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;"&gt;O presidente dos EUA vem articulando para conseguir aprovar no Congresso um aumento do "teto" da dívida, para ganhar mais espaço de manobra no curto-prazo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Assim, quanto mais a situação da economia permanecer debilitada, e quanto mais os americanos demorarem para definir a gestão de curto, médio e longo-prazo da dívida, maior será o movimento de aversão ao risco, mais os investidores irão "fugir" do dólar e a conseqüência pode ser de apreciação de outras moedas como o real.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6731604163091624415?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6731604163091624415/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/real-forte-ou-dolar-fraco.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6731604163091624415'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6731604163091624415'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/real-forte-ou-dolar-fraco.html' title='Real forte ou dólar fraco?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-8219300522927014231</id><published>2011-07-13T02:58:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-07-13T02:58:25.266+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Livros'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Entrevista'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Paul Krugman'/><title type='text'>De que é feito um Nobel?</title><content type='html'>Interessante &lt;a href="http://thebrowser.com/interviews/paul-krugman-on-inspiration-liberal-economist?page=1"&gt;entrevista de Paul Krugman&lt;/a&gt; sobre os livros mais importantes na construação da sua maneira de ver o mundo.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-8219300522927014231?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/8219300522927014231/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/de-que-e-feito-um-nobel.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8219300522927014231'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/8219300522927014231'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/de-que-e-feito-um-nobel.html' title='De que é feito um Nobel?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1957729496408279102</id><published>2011-07-12T04:53:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-07-12T04:53:21.470+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='EUA'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dívida'/><title type='text'>Crise, dívida e recuperação: EUA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-u4nP62j8L0M/Thu-KGahFgI/AAAAAAAAAKk/9k9PvXRs010/s1600/debt.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="192" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-u4nP62j8L0M/Thu-KGahFgI/AAAAAAAAAKk/9k9PvXRs010/s320/debt.png" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-enf8x7ZEL9E/Thu-Kp1Aj1I/AAAAAAAAAKo/CVd60Xi_Yzs/s1600/desemprego.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="202" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-enf8x7ZEL9E/Thu-Kp1Aj1I/AAAAAAAAAKo/CVd60Xi_Yzs/s320/desemprego.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QPm3l9XMgUY/Thu-Kw7suSI/AAAAAAAAAKs/VbE9g6nyT4o/s1600/infla%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="193" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-QPm3l9XMgUY/Thu-Kw7suSI/AAAAAAAAAKs/VbE9g6nyT4o/s320/infla%25C3%25A7%25C3%25A3o.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Os EUA ainda sentem os problemas originados pela Crise Financeira de 2008. Após o colapso do mercado de hipotecas de alto risco, a crise tanto no setor financeiro, como na economia real assolou o país (e o mundo). A recuperação (se é que pode ser chamada dessa maneira) se mostra bem lenta. Em trabalhos como de &lt;a href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2008/wp08274.pdf"&gt;Claessens, Kose e Terrones&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;podemos observar que em países desenvolvidos a taxa de desemprego pode levar mais de dez anos para voltar ao patamar pré-crise.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Ao analisar os dados do Bureau of Labor Statistics, de janeiro de 2001 a dezembro de 2007, a taxa de desemprego média foi de 5,2%, contra 8,3% em média de janeiro de 2008 a junho de 2011 (vide gráfico acima). Como é de se esperar, a dinâmica dos preços também foi afetada. Com base nos dados do Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, a inflação acumulada nos últimos 12 meses, de&amp;nbsp;janeiro de 2001 a dezembro de 2007 foi, em média, de 2,17%&amp;nbsp;(exclui-se aqui energia e alimentação, em função das diretrizes da política monetária do país). Já de&amp;nbsp;janeiro de 2008 a junho de 2011, a média foi de 1,60%.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Os dois indicadores abririam espaços para políticas econômicas expansionistas, não fossem alguns detalhes:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;i) Limitações da Política Monetária (Armadilha de Liquidez?)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;O momento da economia norte-americana é peculiar em diversos aspectos, principalmente no que tange a condução da política monetária. Como já fora tratado nos post &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/11/caindo-na-armadilha.html"&gt;Caindo na Armadilha&lt;/a&gt;, os EUA já trabalham com uma taxa de juros nominal próxima a zero, e em situações desse tipo que podem levar à armadilha da liquidez, estímulos monetários seriam ineficazes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;ii) Limitações da Política Fiscal&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;Dadas as limitações da Política Monetária, a Política Fiscal poderia ser utilizada para impulsionar a economia no curto-prazo. Contudo, nesse âmbito também existem problemas. O endividamento dos EUA vem crescendo vertiginosamente (vide gráfico acima), e ao atingir o limite estabelecido pelas leis do país, os articuladores de política econômica podem ser obrigados a decretar o primeiro &lt;i&gt;default&lt;/i&gt;&amp;nbsp;do país, uma situação &amp;nbsp;cujas proporções podem ser catastróficas. O calote da maior economia do mundo acarretaria em aumento da aversão ao risco, queda nos valores de diversos ativos, aumento de taxas de juros, contração em investimentos, comércio, consumo, etc...difícil caracterizar tal evento.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;O que fazer?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"&gt;O presidente dos EUA vem articulando para conseguir aprovar no Congresso um aumento do "teto" da dívida, para ganhar mais espaço de manobra no curto-prazo. É claro que uma reestruturação deve ser feita, mas acredito em uma abordagem &lt;a href="http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~cromer/Stanford,%20Zale%20Lecture.pdf"&gt;"a la" Christina Romer&lt;/a&gt;, que diz que deve ser elaborado um plano de austeridade e reestruturação da dívida para o longo-prazo, mas que no curto-prazo a economia precisa de estímulos e aumentar (ou melhorar talvez) os gastos do governo pode ser a melhor saída.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1957729496408279102?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1957729496408279102/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/crise-divida-e-recuperacao-eua.html#comment-form' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1957729496408279102'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1957729496408279102'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/crise-divida-e-recuperacao-eua.html' title='Crise, dívida e recuperação: EUA'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-u4nP62j8L0M/Thu-KGahFgI/AAAAAAAAAKk/9k9PvXRs010/s72-c/debt.png' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-4148424103350718622</id><published>2011-07-06T04:14:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-07-06T04:17:31.386+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado Financeiro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crédito'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economia'/><title type='text'>Mercado de Crédito: concentração de produtos e um novo equilíbrio?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q5ATiM0mK1Y/ThPNwdOMJGI/AAAAAAAAAKY/J0Tn9wATm6Q/s1600/credito+pf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="177" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q5ATiM0mK1Y/ThPNwdOMJGI/AAAAAAAAAKY/J0Tn9wATm6Q/s320/credito+pf.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0BRAnjypdg0/ThPNw_6yK1I/AAAAAAAAAKc/iGh5DfCHZC0/s1600/HH+Cr%25C3%25A9dito+PF.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="156" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0BRAnjypdg0/ThPNw_6yK1I/AAAAAAAAAKc/iGh5DfCHZC0/s320/HH+Cr%25C3%25A9dito+PF.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jmZPfLwmbZ0/ThPNxRka9wI/AAAAAAAAAKg/ZE8pUfPpXeg/s1600/share+credito+pf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="122" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jmZPfLwmbZ0/ThPNxRka9wI/AAAAAAAAAKg/ZE8pUfPpXeg/s320/share+credito+pf.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O mercado de crédito é um dos principais canais de transmissão da política monetária e a sua evolução merece um acompanhamento bem próximo. Para uma atualização, vale dar uma lida nos posts &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/04/credito-no-brasil.html"&gt;Crédito no Brasil&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/06/de-olho-no-credito-no-brasil.html"&gt;De olho no crédito no Brasil&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/10/credito-financiamentos-imobiliarios.html"&gt;Crédito&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;e &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/02/medidas-macroprudenciais-financiamentos.html"&gt;Medidas Macroprudenciais: Financiamentos de Veículos&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Evolução&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Com base nos dados disponibilizados pelo Banco Central, o volume de empréstimos feitos às pessoas físicas ultrapassou os R$ 950 bi em maio de 2011. Como é possível verificar no primeiro gráfico do texto, a maior parte dos recursos está alocada no Crédito Pessoal (veemente crescimento atingindo 48% em maio/2011 contra 32% em dez/2000). Em segundo lugar estão os Financiamentos de veículos, com 34% do montante (partindo de 30% em dez/2000). As concessões via Cartões de Crédito aparecem em terceiro lugar, totalizando 7% do volume total (5% em dez/2000). O Financiamento Imobiliário aparece em quarto lugar, com apenas 2% dos recursos (queda expressiva frente aos 6% em dez/2000). Com esse comportamento, será que o mercado de crédito se encontra em um "novo equilíbrio"?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Concentração?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A intrigante evolução das concessões leva à questão sobre certa concentração de produtos nesse "novo equilíbrio". O segundo gráfico do texto mostra a evolução do &lt;a href="http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/testimony/hhi.htm"&gt;Índice Herfindahl-Hirschman&lt;/a&gt; aplicado para a participação de cada produto no total de concessões feitas às pessoas físicas. Como pode ser observado, o índice apresenta um crescimento forte entre dez/2000 e dez/2010, com queda marginal em mai/2011 (sazonal?). Os últimos gráficos mostram a participação dos produtos em dez/2000 e mai/2011 auxiliam a caracterizar as diferenças nas concessões entre os extremos do período analisado.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Interessante destacar que produtos como o Crédito Imobiliário, que têm uma exposição relativamente interessante em diversos meios de comunicação, vêm perdendo participação, mesmo com crescimento vertiginoso no volume de concessões. Possivelmente a estrutura de medidas macroprudenciais pode interferir nesse tipo de resultado. Um novo post será feito para os créditos destinados às pessoas jurídicas. Acompanhem.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-4148424103350718622?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/4148424103350718622/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/mercado-de-credito-concentracao-de.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4148424103350718622'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4148424103350718622'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/07/mercado-de-credito-concentracao-de.html' title='Mercado de Crédito: concentração de produtos e um novo equilíbrio?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q5ATiM0mK1Y/ThPNwdOMJGI/AAAAAAAAAKY/J0Tn9wATm6Q/s72-c/credito+pf.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3818131555972387592</id><published>2011-07-01T03:08:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-07-01T03:08:21.321+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Poupança'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Taxa de juros'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Taxa de Juros e Poupança Interna</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-k37DTs7RuZ4/Tg0kpU69WGI/AAAAAAAAAKQ/KWNdASr5SnQ/s1600/gross+savings.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="186" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-k37DTs7RuZ4/Tg0kpU69WGI/AAAAAAAAAKQ/KWNdASr5SnQ/s320/gross+savings.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_JQu3qRvB6c/Tg0krk2U1II/AAAAAAAAAKU/iuLAkBuQe20/s1600/taxa+de+juros.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="243" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_JQu3qRvB6c/Tg0krk2U1II/AAAAAAAAAKU/iuLAkBuQe20/s320/taxa+de+juros.jpg" width="320" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O nível das taxas de juros praticadas na economia brasileira é tema recorrente na discussão de ritmo de crescimento do país. Sob uma abordagem de macroeconomia internacional, explorei a discussão através do modelo International CAPM (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/por-que-taxa-de-juros-no-brasil-e-tao.html"&gt;Por que a taxas de juros no Brasil é tão alta (International CAPM)&lt;/a&gt;, o qual propõe um prêmio pelo risco cambial advindo de quão distante um ativo está do portfolio de mínimo risco. Neste texto, contudo, uma abordagem relativamente doméstica será utilizada para compreender parte da determinação das taxas de juros, com base na simples relação de oferta e demanda de capital.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O primeiro gráfico do texto mostra a relação entre poupança bruta e o produto das economias do BRIC. Além do próprio comportamento das curvas, não fica difícil entender o motivo do Brasil possuir a maior taxa de juros real entre os países acima. Vamos compreender a dinâmica analisada:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A quantidade poupada pelos agentes é a oferta de capital disponível. A interação entre a oferta e a demanda irá definir qual a taxa de juros a equilibrar essa relação. Para um dado nível de demanda, quanto menor for a oferta de capital (menor a poupança), maior será a taxa de juros de equilíbrio. Em um país com uma taxa de poupança tão baixa, não é de admirar que as taxas de juros sejam tão altas (sim, existem outros motivos, por isso utilizo a estratégia de abordar cada um deles em um texto separado).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Além disso, taxas de poupança muito baixas podem gerar necessidade de recursos externos, causando os déficits em transações correntes que estamos verificando (o ingresso do capital via a conta financeira do balanço de pagamentos é equiparado déficit comercial de produtos e serviços com outras economias).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para aumentar a poupança doméstica a) os agentes devem conter o consumo e/ou b) o governo deve implementar um plano de austeridade fiscal na direção de aumentar a quantidade de capital disponível. Das duas opções, para tentar barrar o consumo de um país que está experimentando pela primeira vez a "farra" do crédito, as medidas de política econômica deveriam ser demasiadamente contracionistas de tal forma que o impacto na economia não valeria seus benefícios na redução estrutural dos juros. Agora, do ponto de vista de teoria de política econômica alinhada à sustentabilidade do crescimento econômico, gastar menos do que se arrecada é uma estratégia factível. Todavia, quando a teoria esbarra na prática, às vezes os incentivos divergem...&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3818131555972387592?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3818131555972387592/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/06/taxa-de-juros-e-poupanca-interna.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3818131555972387592'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3818131555972387592'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/06/taxa-de-juros-e-poupanca-interna.html' title='Taxa de Juros e Poupança Interna'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-k37DTs7RuZ4/Tg0kpU69WGI/AAAAAAAAAKQ/KWNdASr5SnQ/s72-c/gross+savings.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5974704535285535239</id><published>2011-06-28T01:09:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-06-28T01:20:27.531+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Investimentos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflação'/><title type='text'>Inflação, Política Monetária e Investimentos: Pré e Pós-fixado</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0rCOW9NW2kY/TgkY4aVW-jI/AAAAAAAAAJo/nixt11VQFn0/s1600/ibov.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"&gt;&lt;img border="0" height="237" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0rCOW9NW2kY/TgkY4aVW-jI/AAAAAAAAAJo/nixt11VQFn0/s400/ibov.jpg" width="400" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em tempos de incerteza em relação ao cenário econômico e às decisões dos gestores de política econômica, os investidores tendem a realocar suas carteiras para ativos com um perfil de menor risco. Em geral esses movimentos geram impactos negativos na renda variável.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;O gráfico acima mostra o comportamento do valor das empresas listadas no Ibovespa de jan/10 a mai/11, com base nos dados disponibilizados pelo Banco Central do Brasil (BCB). A variação acumulada no período foi de 12,5%.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Renda Fixa&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Na renda fixa, de maneira extremamente simplificada, temos os investimentos prefixados e os pós-fixados. Os primeiros possuem esse nome em função da definição da taxa de juros que o título irá remunerar o detentor do capital já no ato da aplicação (e.g. um título do tesouro que pague 12,5% no prazo de um ano).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A outra alternativa de investimentos já possui a sua remuneração atrelada a um indexador qualquer, por exemplo, o CDI - Certificado de Depósito Interbancário (muito comum no varejo bancário que os CDB - Certificados de Depósitos Bancários - quando pós-fixados, tenham as suas remunerações referenciadas à esse indicador). Nessas condições a remuneração só será conhecida pelo investidor quando o mesmo realizar o resgate.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Como conciliar as expectativas macroeconômicas e seus investimentos?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em um ambiente cuja inflação se mostra um problema, os policymakers tendem a utilizar a política monetária via aumento da taxa de juros para controlar a inflação. Nesse caso, se a decisão de aplicar em renda fixa já tiver sido feita, o investidor tende a alocar seus recursos em títulos pós-fixados, pois a sua expectativa é de que as taxas de juros aumentem.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Em um cenário no qual a dinâmica dos preços é favorável e o governo tende a privilegiar o crescimento econômico via políticas expansionistas, os investidores tendem a se utilizar os títulos prefixados dado que a remuneração é definida no ato da aplicação, e a expectativa é de que as taxas de juros caiam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;Conjuntura econômica&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A inflação tem feito parte da pauta da discussão macroeconômica já há algum tempo. Seja por estar acumulada nos últimos 12 meses acima da meta para o ano de 6,5%, ou pelas expectativas do mercado que indicavam um comportamento nocivo para os preços nesse ano (o mercado parece ter suavizado as suas preocupações, mas já vem sinalizando temor quanto à inflação de 2012).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sendo assim, o Banco Central iniciou no começo do ano um ciclo de aumentos da taxa básica de juros e vem indicando em suas atas que, possivelmente, o ciclo não será tão prolongado quanto alguns economistas gostariam (me incluo), mas provavelmente o ciclo ainda não fora encerrado. Acompanhemos as decsiões da entidade monetária para melhor alocarmos nossos ativos.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5974704535285535239?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5974704535285535239/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/06/inflacao-politica-monetaria-e.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5974704535285535239'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5974704535285535239'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/06/inflacao-politica-monetaria-e.html' title='Inflação, Política Monetária e Investimentos: Pré e Pós-fixado'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0rCOW9NW2kY/TgkY4aVW-jI/AAAAAAAAAJo/nixt11VQFn0/s72-c/ibov.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-6310132270605832951</id><published>2011-05-27T18:24:00.006+01:00</published><updated>2011-06-02T22:43:10.867+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Seleção Adversa'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Zona do Euro'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Risco Moral'/><title type='text'>Seria a Zona do Euro um equilíbrio Pooling?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Este texto é inspirado no artigo do Prof. Paul Krugman (Prêmio Nobel de Economia em 2008) publicado no NYTimes.com. Segue o &lt;a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/23/opinion/23krugman.html?_r=2&amp;amp;partner=rssnyt&amp;amp;emc=rss"&gt;link&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Por diversas vezes comentei aqui no &lt;b&gt;Economic Approach&lt;/b&gt; sobre os problemas oriundos da Zona do Euro (vide textos como: &lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;&lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F05%2Fencruzilhada-macroeconomica.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F05%2Feuro-e-o-point-of-no-return.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Euro e o “Point of no return”&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F06%2Feuro-problems-deficits-publicos.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Euro Problems: Déficits Públicos&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F06%2Feuros-survival-is-economically.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;“the euro’s survival is economically impossible...”&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F06%2Fcomo-crise-europeia-poderia-impactar-o.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Como a crise européia poderia impactar o Brasil?&lt;/a&gt;,  &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F07%2Fhow-did-greece-get-into-this-mess.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;“How did Greece Ge tinto this Mess?”&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F03%2Fproblemas-em-portugal.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Problemas em Portugal&lt;/a&gt; e &lt;a href="https://service.mail.com/dereferrer/?target=http%3A%2F%2Feconapproach.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F04%2Fmais-sobre-portugal-diferencas-nos.html" target="_blank" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; "&gt;Mais sobre Portugal: Diferenças nos ciclos de negócio&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Certas falhas de mercado podem ter sido parte do problema que esses países enfrentam hoje:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;1) Assimetria de Informação: Seleção Adversa e &lt;i&gt;Moral Hazard&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Diversas relações econômicas que surgem a partir de interesses incompatíveis podem incorrer em problemas de Seleção Adversa e/ou Moral Hazard. Embora o primeiro ocorra nas situações pré-contratuais e o segundo nas relações pós-contratuais, ambos emergem das falhas de mercado advindas da assimetria de informação.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Personagens (por simplificação, apenas dois):&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;- O Principal: responsável pelo estabelecimento do "contrato"  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;- O Agente: responsável pela aceitação do contrato e pela execução do mesmo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Nos problemas de Seleção Adversa, o Principal se relaciona com um Agente que pode ser de vários "tipos" (entendendo a palavra "tipos" como conjunto de idiossincrasias importantes para a relação a ser estabelecida; exemplo: produtivo e não produtivo, esforçado e não esforçado, etc..) e &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;tentar conceber um contrato que faça com que o Agente de alguma forma revele o seu tipo. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;Nos problemas de Moral Hazard, o Principal também se relaciona com um Agente, contudo, a questão emerge após a aceitação do contrato. O Principal e o Agente possuem interesses distintos (como por exemplo, um chefe que deseja que o empregado trabalhe muito e o empregado que gostaria de trabalhar pouco) e o contrato deve ser formatado de tal forma que haja compatibilidade de interesses (ou seja, trabalhar muito deve ser bom para o empregado também).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;2) Zona do Euro: Qual o tipo de equilíbrio?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;A crise da dívida dos países europeus é assunto recorrente nos principais meios de comunicação. Alguns aspectos dos problemas que são evidenciados hoje remetem à Seleção Adversa e ao &lt;i&gt;Moral Hazard&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Antes da concepção da Zona do Euro, os países eram avaliados pelos investidores individualmente, e a concessão de crédito levava em conta a gestão macroeconômica, o histórico do país e as perspectivas para o mesmo (para simplificar). Com a criação da Zona do Euro, os países foram "empacotados" sob a tutela de uma "gestão coordenada" (será?), e possivelmente passaram a ser avaliados sob uma ótica um pouco mais otimista em função da nova situação (de maneira extremista, "todo mundo passou a ser Alemanha").&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;O primeiro problema emerge justamente nos problemas de avaliação dos investidores para com o "tipo" do país. Possivelmente países que teriam uma maior restrição ao crédito (seja pela oferta ou pelas taxas de juros) tiveram acesso a recursos em demasia justamente por serem "confundidos" com países como a Alemanha, que impulsionam positivamente o bloco econômico.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Um outro problema emerge no fato de que os gestores de política econômica ao acreditarem que em momentos de stress as nações que apresentarem um melhor desempenho irão socorrer os países em dificuldades. Se isso for uma verdade absoluta, podem emergir incentivos para que os dirigentes dos países se "descuidem" e não utilizem nem contraiam recursos da melhor maneira possível, pois sabem que no final serão "salvos". &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span"&gt;Seria então a Zona do Euro um equilíbrio no qual não há distinçào entre os tipos de agente (equilíbrio &lt;i&gt;pooling)&lt;/i&gt;? Ou melhor, seria a Zona do Euro um equilíbrio? E os riscos dos pacotes financeiros nas gestões futuras?&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-6310132270605832951?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/6310132270605832951/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/seria-zona-do-euro-um-equilibrio.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6310132270605832951'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/6310132270605832951'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/seria-zona-do-euro-um-equilibrio.html' title='Seria a Zona do Euro um equilíbrio Pooling?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-2139918576999377368</id><published>2011-05-27T18:17:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-05-27T18:23:00.574+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Finanças'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Blog'/><title type='text'>Ranking de Blogs</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/completelist/0,29569,2057116,00.html"&gt;The 25 Best Financial Blogs.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;De acordo com o site TIME.com (criador da lista):&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;From Paul Krugman to Freakonomics to the Consumerist, we compiled a list of the most influential (and useful) finance blogs out there and then asked some of the best-known bloggers to review one another's work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-2139918576999377368?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/2139918576999377368/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/ranking-de-blogs.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2139918576999377368'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/2139918576999377368'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/ranking-de-blogs.html' title='Ranking de Blogs'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3570383496324450722</id><published>2011-05-10T23:44:00.005+01:00</published><updated>2011-05-11T00:05:56.600+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Fluxo de Capitais'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Taxa de juros'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Taxa de Câmbio'/><title type='text'>O trilema: teoria e...prática?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Esse texto é inspirado no post &lt;a href="http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/09/currency-wars-and-the-impossible-trinity-wonkish/"&gt;"Currency Wars" and the Impossible Trinity (Wonkish)&lt;/a&gt; do ganhador do Prêmio Nobel de 2008, Paul Krugman.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A taxa de câmbio, a taxa de juros e inflação estão no topo das preocupações dos gestores de política econômica no Brasil. Um dos problemas, na minha opinião, tem raízes na falta de coordenação entre teoria e prática. Lembremos do Trilema proposto por Robert Mundell, no qual um país deve escolher dois (apenas dois!) das três opções a abaixo:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;1) Livre fluxo de capitais;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;2) Política Monetária Independente;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;3) Taxa de Câmbio Fixa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A idéia é simples. Caso o país escolha, por exemplo, um regime de taxa de câmbio fixo e permita a livre mobilidade do capital, deve deixar a sua política monetária ajustar o equilíbrio com base no sistema escolhido. Pois para manter o câmbio fixo, se por um acaso aumentar a aversão ao risco em relação a títulos ou à moeda do país, o êxodo do capital deve ser controlado através da elevação da sua taxa de juros (desconsiderando como a economia doméstica está se comportando). &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;No caso de um país que escolha a livre entrada do capital e a independência na gestão da política econômica, a taxa de câmbio iria fazer o papel do ajuste. Esse deveria ser o caso brasileiro. Deveria, mas será que é?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O governo vem intervindo sistematicamente para controlar a apreciação do real. Contudo, não quer abrir mão da sua política monetária (nem pode!). Sem controle de capitais, a teoria já nos disse que não dá. Elaboremos:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;i) O influxo de capital é intenso, devido em parte ao excesso de liquidez nos países desenvolvidos, em decorrência das políticas monetárias expansionistas nos EUA e na Europa. Outra parte se dá pelas boas perspectivas para a economia brasileira, e pelo enorme diferencial de juros;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;ii) A inflação é um problema doméstico e, parece, já virou prioridade na agenda do governo (assim esperamos). Como o problema não está apenas nos preços de &lt;i&gt;tradables&lt;/i&gt;, mas também na pressão de demanda refletida nos preços de serviços, a Banco Central não pode abrir mão da gestão da estabilidade dos preços com base nos interesses domésticos;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;iii) somando i) com ii) a teoria nos mostra que o natural seria deixar a taxa de câmbio encontrar seu valor livremente, mas parece que o governo não quer isso. Mas querer nem sempre é poder. A luta contra a apreciação do real é uma luta contra fundamentos e contra o sistema de gestão macroeconômica instaurado. Enquanto o cenário internacional não for revertido, não acredito em reversão de tendência. A "briga" vai ser dura.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3570383496324450722?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3570383496324450722/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/o-trilema-teoria-epratica.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3570383496324450722'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3570383496324450722'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/o-trilema-teoria-epratica.html' title='O trilema: teoria e...prática?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-5822447067352102465</id><published>2011-05-10T23:25:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-05-10T23:26:56.187+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Keynes'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Hayek'/><title type='text'>Keynes vs Hayek</title><content type='html'>&lt;div&gt;Vídeo curioso:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;a href="http://econstories.tv/2011/04/28/fight-of-the-century-music-video/"&gt;Fight of the Century&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-5822447067352102465?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/5822447067352102465/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/keynes-vs-hayek.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5822447067352102465'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/5822447067352102465'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/keynes-vs-hayek.html' title='Keynes vs Hayek'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-275206854491366759</id><published>2011-05-03T23:18:00.003+01:00</published><updated>2011-05-04T00:17:35.727+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflação'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mercado de Trabalho'/><title type='text'>Revisitando a Espiral de Preços e Salários</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WQFUiI2GH_c/TcCA-_6iSoI/AAAAAAAAAJg/A1MyvBr_WzU/s1600/rm.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 259px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WQFUiI2GH_c/TcCA-_6iSoI/AAAAAAAAAJg/A1MyvBr_WzU/s400/rm.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5602619756246092418" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-tg8jDFdgqkA/TcCA-y6irWI/AAAAAAAAAJY/OfcM05zbCpo/s1600/ipca.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 259px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-tg8jDFdgqkA/TcCA-y6irWI/AAAAAAAAAJY/OfcM05zbCpo/s400/ipca.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5602619752756456802" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rA7tEkXf_t0/TcCA-jx0CDI/AAAAAAAAAJQ/pa8U7rxXg0Q/s1600/desemprego.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 259px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rA7tEkXf_t0/TcCA-jx0CDI/AAAAAAAAAJQ/pa8U7rxXg0Q/s400/desemprego.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5602619748693313586" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;Parte da dinâmica dos preços é oriunda dos acontecimentos no mercado de trabalho. Um conceito muito interessante é o da Espiral de Preços e Salários. Com o mercado de trabalho brasileiro extremamente aquecido, essa discussão volta à tona e a gestão macroeconômica dessa dinâmica é um dos desafios para os &lt;i&gt;policymakers&lt;/i&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;i) A dinâmica de preços e salários&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;Como em qualquer mercado comum, no mercado de trabalho o equilíbrio obtido através da interação entre a oferta e a demanda. Os trabalhadores confrontam suas expectativas de inflação, os benefícios sociais disponíveis (como seguro-desemprego) e outros fatores para "exigirem" uma remuneração que considram adequada. No outro lado, as empresas assimilam os custos provenientes das contrações na composição dos preços de seus produtos. Quanto mais aquecido o mercado de trabalho, maior o poder de barganha da oferta, resultando em salários maiores. Da mesma forma que em épocas de recessão prolongada uma taxa de desemprego muito alta faz com que a oferta seja abundante dado certo nível demandado, o que gerando uma queda no salário real.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;O conceito da Espiral de Preços e Salários emerge dessa dinâmica. Um mercado de trabalho aquecido aumenta o poder de barganha dos trabalhadores, que exigem salários maiores. Os salários mais altos aumentam os custos das empresas, que por sua vez repassam o aumento para os preços dos produtos. Essa dinâmica é incorporada nas novas negociações salariais, pois os trabalhadores já esperam que as empresas aumentem os preços de seus produtos e, portanto, exigem salários maiores. Os novos aumentos nos salários refletem em novos aumentos nos custos, e por sua vez em novos aumentos de preços e assim por diante. Esse movimento "em espiral" configura o fenômeno citado.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; "&gt;ii) Evidências Empíricas?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;Esse texto é uma "provocação" feita com os dados disponíveis pelo Banco Central do Brasil (BCB) e pelo IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística). Como pode ser observado, a taxa de desemprego vem caindo (vide gráfico com a taxa de desemprego média dos últimos 12 meses), os salários reais vêm aumentando e a inflação acumulada nos últimos 12 meses vem ganhando força. Estaríamos em uma Espiral de Preços e Salários?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 24px; "&gt;É claro que existem outros efeitos a serem considerados. Parte da inflação é composta pelos preços de &lt;i&gt;tradables&lt;/i&gt;, cuja determinação ocorre em mercado internacionais, sendo pouco impactados pelos salários do mercado de trabalho doméstico.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-275206854491366759?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/275206854491366759/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/revisitando-espiral-de-precos-e.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/275206854491366759'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/275206854491366759'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/05/revisitando-espiral-de-precos-e.html' title='Revisitando a Espiral de Preços e Salários'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WQFUiI2GH_c/TcCA-_6iSoI/AAAAAAAAAJg/A1MyvBr_WzU/s72-c/rm.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-920065828205662405</id><published>2011-04-29T23:07:00.002+01:00</published><updated>2011-04-29T23:10:19.334+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Microeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Economia'/><title type='text'>Links: Macro e Micro</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Dois textos interessantes. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Do lado macro, o Prof. Márcio Garica da PUC-RJ fala sobre os &lt;a href="http://www.econ.puc-rio.br/Mgarcia/Artigos/Artigos%20Valor/Valor%20110311%20MGarcia.pdf"&gt;Zumbis Econômicos&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Do lado micro, um texto do blog &lt;a href="http://www.freakonomics.com/2011/04/28/did-the-sale-of-pyrex-hurt-the-crack-cocaine-industry/"&gt;Freakonomics&lt;/a&gt; bem curioso.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-920065828205662405?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/920065828205662405/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/links-macro-e-micro.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/920065828205662405'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/920065828205662405'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/links-macro-e-micro.html' title='Links: Macro e Micro'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-800329628920112270</id><published>2011-04-26T00:25:00.001+01:00</published><updated>2011-04-26T00:27:01.925+01:00</updated><title type='text'>Qual tema você gostaria de ver no Economic Approach?</title><content type='html'>Deixe uma mensagem com uma sugestão de tema para ser discutido aqui no Economic Approach!&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-800329628920112270?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/800329628920112270/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/qual-tema-voce-gostaria-de-ver-no.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/800329628920112270'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/800329628920112270'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/qual-tema-voce-gostaria-de-ver-no.html' title='Qual tema você gostaria de ver no Economic Approach?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-4623837120218235237</id><published>2011-04-18T21:50:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-04-18T21:52:26.123+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='China'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Monetária'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Bolsa de Valores'/><title type='text'>Política Monetária na China: impactos na Bovespa?</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; "&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;Pela quarta vez no ano, os gestores de política econômica no gigante asiático decidiram elevar a alíquota de depósito compulsório, em 50 bps, para 20,5% (segundo a agência Reuters). Quais os possíveis impactos para os investidores no mercado de ações brasileiros?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;i) A Política Monetária&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;O aumento no depósito compulsório tem por objetivo diminuir a liquidez do sistema financeiro chinês. Assim, com um volume menor de recursos disponíveis, o primeiro impacto é na contração da oferta de crédito. Com um custo maior e uma oferta menor, tudo mais constante, as taxas de juros tendem a subir. A restrição de recursos (e o encarecimento dos mesmos) visa contrair a demanda agregada através do consumo (principalmente) e dos investimentos. O arrefecimento da demanda agregada pode tirar um pouco da pressão nos preços, controlando a inflação no país (choques exógenos como preços de &lt;i&gt;commodities&lt;/i&gt; podem interferir na trajetória do índice, mas os efeitos primários estão além da interferência do Banco Central do país, em geral).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;ii) Desaceleração na China, queda na bolsa?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;Uma desaceleração da economia chinesa acima do esperado pode impactar a bolsa de valores através de dois canais: um genérico e um mais específico. Genericamente, uma diminuição no ritmo da atividade na China pode induzir aos investidores internacionais a conter sua exposição à renda variável e iniciarem um movimento de realizações que pode pressionar os preços dos ativos. Assim, esse tipo de investidor que, em geral, possui as ações mais líquidas (dado que investe um grande lote, tenta minimizar o risco de liquidez para poder se desfazer de uma posição rapidamente) ao vender esse tipo de ação pressiona os índices das bolsas. Esses investidores são seguidos por outros agentes e pelos “robôs” dos fundos quantitativos, que ao identificarem eletronicamente uma pressão negativa nos preços dos papeis, impulsionam ainda mais a dinâmica de queda da bolsa.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;Outra forma de transmissão se dá nos fundamentos das ações em si. Uma empresa com grande parte da sua atividade atrelada ao mercado internacional pode sofre impactos de uma desaceleração não esperada na China. Seja diretamente (diminui o volume de crédito disponível → cai o consumo e os investimentos → cai o PIB → cai a renda → caem as importações), ou pela atuação com outros países que possuem uma exposição à economia chinesa (caem as exportações líquidas para a china desses países → cai o PIB → cai a renda → importam menos das empresas em questão).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-left: 0cm; line-height: 22px; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; "&gt;De olho na China.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-4623837120218235237?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/4623837120218235237/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/politica-monetaria-na-china-impactos-na.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4623837120218235237'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4623837120218235237'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/politica-monetaria-na-china-impactos-na.html' title='Política Monetária na China: impactos na Bovespa?'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-4739694274964661517</id><published>2011-04-08T00:18:00.004+01:00</published><updated>2011-04-08T00:22:17.686+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política Econômica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflação'/><title type='text'>Inflação cada vez mais perto do teto da meta</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QWK5RchnFZE/TZ5G5L9TmAI/AAAAAAAAAJI/jZ7n84QlWzk/s1600/Untitled.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 238px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QWK5RchnFZE/TZ5G5L9TmAI/AAAAAAAAAJI/jZ7n84QlWzk/s400/Untitled.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5592985735517149186" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;color:black;mso-fareast-language:PT-BR"&gt;O IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística divulgou hoje a variação do IPCA – Índice de Preços ao Consumidor Amplo – no mês de março (0,79%). A variação acumulada nos últimos 12 meses atingiu 6,3%, muito próximo do teto da meta de inflação estipulada para o ano de 6,5%. Até aí, nada de novo. Como já divulgado, o Banco Central do Brasil (BCB) já “jogou a toalha” em relação à inflação de 2011 está apostando (vide &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/banco-central-do-brasil-o-apostador.html" target="_blank"&gt;&lt;span style="color:blue"&gt;Banco Central do Brasil, o apostador&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;) para convergência da dinâmica dos preços no final de 2012.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;color:black;mso-fareast-language:PT-BR"&gt; O gráfico no início do texto mostra o comportamento do IPCA acumulado nos últimos 12 meses (IPCA12m). As áreas ressaltadas mostram os perídos recentes em que a aceleração &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18px; "&gt;ameaçou o rompimento da meta. No primeiro momento em que o IPCA12m atingiu 6,41%, uma Crise Financeira “ajudou” a conter a dinâmica de preços. E agora, o que ajudará? Europa? Taxa de câmbio?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-4739694274964661517?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/4739694274964661517/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/inflacao-cada-vez-mais-perto-do-teto-da.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4739694274964661517'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/4739694274964661517'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/inflacao-cada-vez-mais-perto-do-teto-da.html' title='Inflação cada vez mais perto do teto da meta'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QWK5RchnFZE/TZ5G5L9TmAI/AAAAAAAAAJI/jZ7n84QlWzk/s72-c/Untitled.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1053036488918214021</id><published>2011-04-04T22:37:00.004+01:00</published><updated>2011-04-04T22:50:25.385+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Portugal'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Mais sobre Portugal: Diferenças nos ciclos de negócio</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-u2el1N2H5BY/TZo9HMKhK4I/AAAAAAAAAJA/Jjnb93A0pzg/s1600/pibpc.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 244px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-u2el1N2H5BY/TZo9HMKhK4I/AAAAAAAAAJA/Jjnb93A0pzg/s400/pibpc.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5591849081067613058" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:150%; font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;;mso-fareast-font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; color:black;mso-fareast-language:PT-BR"&gt;Complementando o post &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/problemas-em-portugal.html" target="_blank"&gt;&lt;span style="color:blue"&gt;Problemas em Portugal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, uma análise sobre as dificuldades oriundas da implementação de uma taxa de câmbio fixa entre países com ciclos de negócio distintos (vide também &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/06/euro-problems-deficits-publicos.html" target="_blank"&gt;&lt;span style="color:blue"&gt;Euro Problems: Déficits Públicos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/euro-e-o-point-of-no-return.html" target="_blank"&gt;&lt;span style="color:blue"&gt;Euro e “Point of no return”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; e &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/encruzilhada-macroeconomica.html" target="_blank"&gt;&lt;span style="color:blue"&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; para contextualização da discussão).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family:&amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;color:black;mso-fareast-language:PT-BR"&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;O gráfico exposto no início do texto com base nos dados extraídos do Banco Mundial evidencia certo descolamento entre a produtividade (medida pelo PIB &lt;i&gt;per capita&lt;/i&gt;) de Portugal frente à produtividade média da Zona do Euro. Em 2000 e 2001 o ciclo parece estar bem alinhado, contudo, nos anos seguintes, embora o formato das curvas seja relativamente semelhante, em 2003, enquanto a Zona do Euro tem um leve aumento de produtividade, Portugal tem uma grande perda, e a partir daí as diferenças (marginais e acumuladas) acentuam o problema.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:0cm;margin-bottom:.0001pt;text-align: justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;Uma das variáveis que poderia corrigir essas discrepâncias (dado que Portugal tem algum grau de abertura comercial e financeira), seria a taxa de câmbio. Todavia, com ela sendo fixa, com a perda da autonomia da política monetária (por várias vezes ressaltada nesse blog, vide textos indicados no primeiro parágrafo) e com os déficits crescentes do país, não é difícil acreditar que a correção possa vir (ou veio?) de uma maneira mais drástica. A saga continua.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1053036488918214021?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1053036488918214021/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/mais-sobre-portugal-diferencas-nos.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1053036488918214021'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1053036488918214021'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/04/mais-sobre-portugal-diferencas-nos.html' title='Mais sobre Portugal: Diferenças nos ciclos de negócio'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-u2el1N2H5BY/TZo9HMKhK4I/AAAAAAAAAJA/Jjnb93A0pzg/s72-c/pibpc.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1039431396761833862</id><published>2011-03-31T23:21:00.000+01:00</published><updated>2011-03-31T23:22:39.362+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Finanças Internacionais'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crises'/><title type='text'>A próxima Crise Financeira</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; "&gt;Um texto interessante do Prof. Barry Eichengreen publicado no jornal O Estado de São Paulo, &lt;a target="_blank" href="http://www.econ.berkeley.edu/~eichengr/next_finan_crisis_3-15-11.pdf" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; cursor: pointer; "&gt;A próxima Crise Financeira&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-1039431396761833862?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/1039431396761833862/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/proxima-crise-financeira.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1039431396761833862'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/1039431396761833862'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/proxima-crise-financeira.html' title='A próxima Crise Financeira'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-3535159090416964366</id><published>2011-03-30T22:52:00.003+01:00</published><updated>2011-03-30T23:03:14.167+01:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Crise Européia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Portugal'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Macroeconomia'/><title type='text'>Problemas em Portugal</title><content type='html'>&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mfR94mjT63g/TZOoUW0C_pI/AAAAAAAAAIw/ri-orll8Znk/s1600/unemp.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 243px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mfR94mjT63g/TZOoUW0C_pI/AAAAAAAAAIw/ri-orll8Znk/s400/unemp.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5589996630171647634" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CRHhFc-YwYk/TZOoUAV-4II/AAAAAAAAAIo/JxD3PStIbZ4/s1600/cpi.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 220px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CRHhFc-YwYk/TZOoUAV-4II/AAAAAAAAAIo/JxD3PStIbZ4/s400/cpi.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5589996624139968642" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YKfNYDfypYk/TZOoT2346kI/AAAAAAAAAIg/7aKP8kR6dAM/s1600/gdp.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 197px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YKfNYDfypYk/TZOoT2346kI/AAAAAAAAAIg/7aKP8kR6dAM/s400/gdp.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5589996621597829698" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gTOGdZBMgXY/TZOoT-twhyI/AAAAAAAAAIY/a6nAFuj_v98/s1600/debt.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 228px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gTOGdZBMgXY/TZOoT-twhyI/AAAAAAAAAIY/a6nAFuj_v98/s400/debt.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5589996623702820642" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-3arbh0TQGJE/TZOoTpQgSmI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/nqN8Fvxjzfk/s1600/nfsp.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"&gt;&lt;img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 244px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-3arbh0TQGJE/TZOoTpQgSmI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/nqN8Fvxjzfk/s400/nfsp.jpg" border="0" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5589996617942977122" /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; "&gt;&lt;span class="Apple-style-span" &gt;Diversos países da Zona do Euro estão apresentando problemas em suas economias (resgatando textos como &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/06/euro-problems-deficits-publicos.html"&gt;Euro Problems: Déficits Públicos&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/euro-e-o-point-of-no-return.html"&gt;Euro e "Point of no return"&lt;/a&gt; e &lt;a href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2010/05/encruzilhada-macroeconomica.html"&gt;Encruzilhada Macroeconômica&lt;/a&gt;). Recentemente Portugal ganhou destaque em função da urgência para que suas questões fiscais sejam resolvidas. Esse texto trata sobre o comportamento de algumas variáveis macroeconômicas do país, e debate sobre os problemas advindos da adoção de uma taxa de câmbio fixa aliada ao fluxo de capitais, resgatando a “Tríade Impossível”&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;Os problemas fiscais de Portugal são evidenciados nos dois primeiros gráficos do texto (necessidade de financiamento do governo central e dívida bruta da administração pública). A gestão da dívida se torna cada vez mais hermética considerando a velocidade na recuperação da Crise Financeira de 2008 (vide gráficos sobre Inflação e PIB). Adicionando uma taxa crescente de desemprego, o prognóstico não parece ser nada favorável.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;Os estímulos fiscais necessários estão comprometidos com a alta necessidade de financiamento do governo. Se do lado da política fiscal pouco pode ser feito para impulsionar a economia, do lado monetário menos ainda. Ao adotar uma taxa de câmbio fixa e livre mobilidade do capital, o país abre mão de uma gestão autônoma da política monetária.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;O aumento da dívida vem sendo a solução paliativa encontrada pelos governantes para ganhar tempo para uma solução de verdade. O problema é que a cada nova emissão a taxa de juros paga pelo governo está maior, tornando mais caro o financiamento das dívidas, e impulsionando a dinâmica nociva dessa estratégia. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;Além do encarecimento da dívida, existe também a questão de quão &lt;i style="mso-bidi-font-style:normal"&gt;debt intolerant&lt;/i&gt; é o país. De maneira simplificada, os países possuem níveis distintos em relação à tolerância dos investidores para com o nível de endividamento do governo (vide o trabalho acadêmico de &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w9908.pdf?new_window=1"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;Reinhart, Rogoff e Savastano&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;). Isto posto, o nível de aversão ao risco cresce exponencialmente com o endividamento acima do aceitável (seja lá qual for). Assim, a situação pode se deteriorar rapidamente se um pacote robusto não for instaurado logo. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;line-height:150%"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;serif&amp;quot;"&gt;Mais problemas da Zona do Euro virão. Acompanhemos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/6684105340708273812-3535159090416964366?l=econapproach.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/feeds/3535159090416964366/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/problemas-em-portugal.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3535159090416964366'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6684105340708273812/posts/default/3535159090416964366'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/03/problemas-em-portugal.html' title='Problemas em Portugal'/><author><name>João Ricardo M. G. Costa Filho</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/10859672103557235766</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='29' height='32' src='http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ozqgCZ5S0dY/TgqSl88ONDI/AAAAAAAAAJ0/7pILMGUJ6bo/s220/foto.jpg'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media='http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/' url='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mfR94mjT63g/TZOoUW0C_pI/AAAAAAAAAIw/ri-orll8Znk/s72-c/unemp.jpg' height='72' width='72'/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6684105340708273812.post-1850058230045908692</id><published>2011-03-21T20:33:00.004Z</published><updated>2011-03-21T20:59:19.197Z</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='ATA'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Banco Central'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Inflação'/><title type='text'>Banco Central do Brasil, o apostador</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; border-top-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-color: initial; font-size: 10pt; "&gt;&lt;div id="AOLMsgPart_2_f1033851-ce88-4e9b-9799-1d223d1ff1c2"&gt;&lt;div class="Section1" style="page: Section1; "&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;Na última reunião do COPOM (Comitê de Política Monetária), a entidade decidiu pela elevação em 50 bps da taxa SELIC, de 11,25% para 11,75% ao ano. Esse aumento já era esperado pelo mercado. O conteúdo da Ata não.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;No cenário projetado pelo &lt;span class="lista1"&gt;Banco Central do Brasil (BCB), considera-se que:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="lista1"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="lista1"&gt;“&lt;/span&gt;Em relação à política fiscal, considera-se o cumprimento da meta de superávit primário de 3,0% do PIB, sem ajustes, em 2011 (conforme parâmetros constantes da Lei de Diretrizes Orçamentárias – 2011). Além disso, admite-se, como hipótese de trabalho, superávit primário de 3,1% em 2012.”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;Superávit primário de 3% do PIB? Interessante, principalmente pelo contraste com as análises feitas sobre o que representa o corte de gastos de R$ 50 bilhões divulgado pelo governo (vide &lt;a target="_blank" href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/02/boa-intencao-nao-basta.html" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; cursor: pointer; "&gt;Boa intenção não basta&lt;/a&gt; e &lt;a target="_blank" href="http://econapproach.blogspot.com/2011/02/os-desafios-da-politica-economica-uma.html" style="color: blue; text-decoration: underline; cursor: pointer; "&gt;Os desafios da política econômica: uma síntese&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;span class="lista1"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;span class="lista1"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Na Ata da reunião, discutem-se os efeitos dos preços de alimentos e de outras commodities, mas a autoridade parece desconsiderar o aquecimento da demanda e quem poderia ser elencado como o vilão da inflação em relação ao nível do índice e não apenas no que concerne a aceleração do mesmo.Para os preços, os diretores do BCB entendem que: &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;“O Copom prevê dois momentos distintos para a trajetória de inflação, segundo o cenário central para 2011. Neste trimestre e nos dois seguintes, a inflação acumulada em doze meses tende a permanecer em patamares similares ou mesmo superiores àquele em que atualmente se encontra. Isso, em parte, explica-se pela elevada inércia trazida de 2010 e pelo fato de as projeções, contrastando com o observado em 2010, apontarem taxas de inflação próximas ao padrão histórico no trimestre junho/agosto de 2011. Entretanto, a partir do quarto trimestre, o cenário central indica tendência declinante para a inflação acumulada em doze meses, ou seja, deslocando-se na direção da trajetória de metas.”&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;E em linhas gerais, o documento explicita que: &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;“Em suma, o Copom reconhece um ambiente econômico em que prevalece nível de incerteza acima do usual, e identifica riscos elevados à concretização de um cenário em que a inflação convirja tempestivamente para o valor central da meta. Desde a última reunião, no âmbito externo, fatores de estímulo e seus reflexos sobre preços de ativos apontam menor probabilidade de reversão do processo de recuperação em que se encontram as economias do G3. Em outra perspectiva, ainda revelam influência ambígua do cenário internacional sobre o comportamento da inflação doméstica. No âmbito interno, ações macroprudenciais recentemente implementadas – um instrumento rápido e potente para conter pressões localizadas de demanda –, e ações convencionais de política monetária ainda terão seus efeitos incorporados à dinâmica dos preços. Embora as incertezas que cercam o cenário global e, em menor escala, o doméstico, não permitam identificar com clareza o grau de perenidade de pressões recentes, o Comitê avalia que o cenário prospectivo para a inflação não evoluiu favoravelmente.”&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; text-align: justify; line-height: 22px; "&gt;Em suma, o BCB admite que perdeu a batalha em 2011 (lembrando que mudanças nas taxa de juros levam de seis a nove meses para impactar a inflação em geral) e está apostando sobre a inflação de 2012. Caso o cenário do BCB não se concretize, o choque de política econômica (e.g. monetária e fiscal) terá que ser forte o suficiente para compensar essa aposta.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleuserco
